Carried out in the 60-70s of the 19th century brought with them cardinal changes that affected all the most important aspects of the life of not only the state, but also society. In such a relatively short period of time, a number of reforms were implemented in such areas as the economy, education, culture, administration, and military affairs. In this article, bourgeois reforms will be briefly reviewed and described on all counts.

Russian emperor Alexander 2

In 1855, during a cannonade that thundered near the walls of the besieged Sevastopol, Nicholas 1 suddenly died. The title of emperor passes to his eldest son. Later he will enter great story Russia as Alexander 2 the Liberator.

The new emperor ascended the throne as an already formed personality - at the age of 36. It must be said that up to this point he did not have his own specific political or economic program, since he was not an adherent of either liberals or reactionaries.

Prerequisites

Alexander Nikolaevich did not perceive and did not share ideas and worldviews that were far from life. He preferred to act, but at the same time he did not go ahead. He was well aware that without compromises and some concessions on his part, it was impossible to effectively manage the state. Therefore, Alexander 2 was sure of the need for transformations in the political circles that govern the state.

The new emperor sought to change the established order that had existed for centuries on the territory of Russia. And he began by returning the Decembrists from Siberia and allowing citizens to freely travel abroad. In addition, he placed new people, more intelligent and educated, in many very important government posts. Also, his brother Konstantin, a staunch liberal, appeared in the Cabinet of Ministers.

In the middle of the 19th century, the new government, as well as conservative circles, already clearly understood that the peasant question must be resolved at all costs. Attempts by the authorities to somehow soften serfdom did not lead to anything, since a whole army of landowners opposed this.

Finally, the prerequisites for bourgeois reforms in Russia regarding the peasant question have finally matured. Serfdom has outlived itself economically. The landlord households, which were kept afloat only thanks to the labor of enslaved peasants, fell into decay. This greatly worried the authorities and the government, which allocated huge amounts of money to support the landowners and their farms.

Abolition of serfdom

The bourgeois reforms of the 1960s and 1970s could not but affect the main part of the population of the Russian Empire - the peasantry. Many agreed that reforms in this area should be carried out in the first place. To do this, in 1857 the government created the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs.

To carry out this reform, Alexander 2 issued an order. It spoke of the need to create a number of committees that would develop a project for the liberation of the peasants. Here are the main provisions of this regulation:

• all land must be kept by the landowners as their personal property;
• peasants could receive land plots from the landowner only for working off or dues;
• give peasants permission to buy their estate from the landowner.

Based on this, the Main Committee presented its draft reform and sent it to the State Council for consideration. On February 19, 1861, the tsar approved the "Regulations on the Peasants". Metropolitan Philaret also drew up a royal manifesto on this occasion. And already on March 5, both documents were made public, and from that moment on, the bourgeois reforms of Alexander 2, concerning the peasant question, were launched.

What conditions were placed before them so that they could free themselves from serfdom? Of course, they were not profitable for the peasants. The provisions of 1861 created the most favorable conditions for maintaining the enslaving dependence of the main population of the country on the landowners. In addition, the bourgeois reforms of the 19th century forced the peasants to lease their masters' lands on obviously difficult conditions.

Zemstvo reform

It began on January 1, 1864. The bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century, concerning not only county, but also provincial zemstvo institutions, assumed the creation of fundamentally new local governments. Prior to this law, they were bureaucratic bureaucrats and estates. This meant that the peasants were judged by the landlords, and the noblemen guarded their dominance at the state level.

Now, in accordance with the new "Regulations", zemstvo institutions were required to consist of representatives (elected vowels) of all estates without exception, but taking into account the property qualification, i.e. ownership of a business or land. The election of vowels was carried out separately and assumed 3 groups of voters: landowners, city dwellers and peasants.

As a result, the bourgeois reforms of Alexander 2, which introduced the so-called all-estate zemstvo, again transferred the entire leading role to the bourgeoisie and landowners, and the problems that they could solve concerned only local and economic needs. In addition, all their activities were under the control of the leaders of the nobility and governors.

urban reform

It was published on June 16, 1870. According to this provision, city dumas were created, which played the role of administrative bodies, as well as city councils in the form of executive bodies. Thus, the bourgeois reforms of the 1860-1870s, concerning both local zemstvo and city self-government, were built on the same basis.

New provisions did not allow them to go beyond the narrow framework of solving only economic issues. City councils, for example, were engaged in the improvement of the city, developed fire-fighting measures, equipped schools and hospitals, took care of trade, etc. The dependence of city self-government not only on the governors, but also on the government was even greater than that of the zemstvos.

Judicial reform

New commercial and industrial activities, industrial relations, as well as city and zemstvo councils needed updated courts. The bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century could not but affect such important areas of public relations.

The courts had to be reformed in such a way that they became free from any influence of the noble administration. In addition, they had to guarantee legal equality for all classes and protect the right to property. For this, Alexander 2 on November 20, 1864 signed an order to introduce judicial reform supplemented by new statutes. They established the principle of universality.

As part of the new reform, 2 types of courts were created. The first is the district, whose duties included the proceedings in civil and criminal cases and the court chambers, which play the role of cassation instances. The second type were magistrates' courts, considering only various minor offenses. An institute of sworn attorneys or lawyers was also created, which provided legal assistance to citizens.

Bourgeois reforms 60-70 years. they also introduced the presence of military courts, which were intended to conduct political trials. But at the same time, special volost courts for peasants and special courts for clergy remained. And this, it should be noted, violated the new principle of all-estate.

Military conversions

The bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century also affected the army. This need was caused, first of all, by the defeat of the Russian Empire in the Crimean War and those foreign policy tasks that could be solved solely with the help of the army. She at all times stood guard over the preservation of the unity of the state, and without her it was impossible to resolve issues relating to interstate relations.

Also the army is the most important body tsarist autocracy, with the help of which it fought the unrest that flared up from time to time in many parts of the country. It must always be strong, politically stable, and most importantly combat-ready.

The bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s, concerning the transformation of the army, were the first to update the War Ministry, and the entire state was divided into military districts. Recruitment sets of soldiers have been cancelled. Instead, they introduced universal military service. It concerned men over the age of 20 years. Also changed the timing military service. Instead of the previous 25, a 6-year term was established for soldiers and a 7-year term for employees in the navy.

Education reform

Alexander 2 understood that the bourgeois reforms in Russia would not give the desired effect if the country did not have literate and well-trained specialists. To do this, they began to create new types educational institutions. Gymnasiums were divided into classical ones with an 8-year term of study and real ones, later called schools. The latter trained specialists for various branches of industry and trade. In addition, new universities have opened in different cities country. It was also introduced higher education and for women.

Importance of Reforms

The significance of the bourgeois reforms can hardly be overestimated. After serfdom was abolished, capitalism in Russia was finally and irrevocably established. From a backward agricultural country, it began to rapidly turn into an agrarian-industrial one.

Also, the abolition of serfdom led to the decomposition of the peasantry itself as a class. This process played an extremely important role in the formation of two new classes - the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.

The bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century were of great importance for the Russian Empire and its further development. Thanks to them, the country turned into a bourgeois monarchy. But, despite the fact that the reforms were very important, they still turned out to be half-hearted and somewhat inconsistent.

World-historical theory

materialist historians(I. A. Fedosov and others) define the period of the abolition of serfdom as a sharp transition from a feudal socio-economic formation to a capitalist one. They believe that the abolition of serfdom in Russia late, and the reforms that followed it were carried out slowly and incompletely. Half-heartedness in carrying out reforms caused indignation of the advanced part of society- the intelligentsia, which then resulted in terror against the king. Marxist revolutionaries believed that the country was "led" along the wrong path of development- "slow cutting off the rotting parts", but it was necessary to "lead" along the path of a radical solution of problems - the confiscation and nationalization of landowners' lands, the destruction of the autocracy, etc.

liberal historians, contemporaries of events, V.O. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911), S.F. Platonov (1860-1933) and others, welcomed both the abolition of serfdom and subsequent reforms. The defeat in the Crimean War, they believed, revealed technical lag of Russia from W apad and undermined the international prestige of the country.

Later liberal historians ( I. N. Ionov, R. Pipes and others) began to note that in In the middle of the 19th century, serfdom reached the highest point of economic efficiency. The reasons for the abolition of serfdom are political. The defeat of Russia in the Crimean War dispelled the myth of the military power of the Empire, caused irritation in society and a threat to the stability of the country. The interpretation focuses on the price of reforms. Thus, the people were not historically prepared for drastic socio-economic changes and "painfully" perceived the changes in their lives. The government did not have the right to abolish serfdom and carry out reforms without comprehensive social and moral preparation of the entire people, especially nobles and peasants. According to liberals, the centuries-old way of Russian life cannot be changed by force.

ON THE. Nekrasov in the poem “To whom it is good to live in Russia” writes:

The great chain is broken

broke and hit:

one end along the master,

others - like a man! ...

Historians of the technological direction (V. A. Krasilshchikov, S. A. Nefedov, etc.) believe that the abolition of serfdom and subsequent reforms are due to the stage of Russia's modernization transition from a traditional (agrarian) society to an industrial one. The transition from traditional to industrial society in Russia was carried out by the state during the period of influence from the 17th-18th centuries. European cultural and technological circle (modernization - westernization) and acquired the form of Europeanization, that is, a conscious change in traditional national forms according to the European model.

“Machine” progress in Western Europe “forced” tsarism to actively impose an industrial order. And this determined the specifics of modernization in Russia. The Russian state, while selectively borrowing technical and organizational elements from the West, simultaneously conserved traditional structures. As a result, the country has situation of “overlapping of historical epochs”(industrial - agrarian), which later led to social shocks.

Industrial society introduced by the state at the expense of the peasants, came into sharp conflict with all the fundamental conditions of Russian life and was bound to give rise to protest both against the autocracy, which did not give the desired freedom to the peasant, and against the private owner, a figure previously alien to Russian life. The industrial workers who appeared in Russia as a result of industrial development inherited the hatred of the entire Russian peasantry, with its centuries-old communal psychology, for private property.

Tsarism is interpreted as a regime that was forced to begin industrialization, but failed to cope with its consequences.

Local historical theory.

The theory is represented by the works of Slavophiles and Narodniks. Historians believed that Russia, unlike Western countries, follows its own, special path of development. They substantiated the possibility in Russia of a non-capitalist path of development to socialism through the peasant community.

Reforms of Alexander II

Land reform. Main issue in Russia during the XVIII-XIX centuries there was a land-peasant. Catherine II raised this question in the work of Volny economic society, which reviewed several dozen programs for the abolition of serfdom, both Russian and foreign authors. Alexander I issued a decree "On free cultivators", allowing landowners to free their peasants from serfdom along with land for ransom. Nicholas I during the years of his reign, he created 11 secret committees on the peasant question, whose task was the abolition of serfdom, the solution of the land issue in Russia.

In 1857, by decree of Alexander II started to work secret committee on the peasant question, the main task of which was the abolition of serfdom with the obligatory allocation of land to the peasants. Then such committees were created for the provinces. As a result of their work (and the wishes and orders of both landlords and peasants were taken into account) was a reform was developed to abolish serfdom for all regions of the country, taking into account local specifics. For different areas were the maximum and minimum values ​​of the allotment transferred to the peasant are determined.

Emperor February 19, 1861 signed a number of laws. Was here Manifesto and Regulations on the Granting of Freedom to the Peasants us, documents on the entry into force of the Regulations, on the management of rural communities, etc.

Abolition of serfdom was not a one-time event. First, the landlord peasants were released, then the specific and assigned to the factories. Peasants got personal freedom, but the land remained the property of the landowners, and while allotments were assigned, the peasants were in the position of "temporarily liable" carried duties in favor of the landowners, which in essence did not differ from the former, serfs. The plots handed over to the peasants were, on average, 1/5 less than those that they cultivated before. To these lands purchase agreements were signed, after that the "temporarily liable" state ceased, the treasury paid off for the land with the landlords, the peasants - with the treasury for 49 years at the rate of 6% per annum (redemption payments).

Land use, relations with the authorities were built through the community. She kept as a guarantor of peasant payments. The peasants were attached to society (the world).

As a result of reforms serfdom was abolished- that “obvious and tangible evil for everyone”, which in Europe was directly called “ Russian slavery. However, the land problem was not resolved, since the peasants, when dividing the land, were forced to give the landlords a fifth of their allotments.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, the first Russian revolution broke out in Russia, a peasant revolution in many respects. driving forces and the challenges ahead of her. This is what made P.A. Stolypin to implement land reform, allowing the peasants to leave the community. The essence of the reform was to resolve the land issue, but not through the confiscation of land from the landlords, as the peasants demanded, but through the redistribution of the land of the peasants themselves.

Liberal reforms of the 60-70s

Zemstvo and city reforms. The principle carried out in 1864. zemstvo reform was electiveness and ignorance. In the provinces and districts of Central Russia and part of Ukraine Zemstvos were established as local self-government bodies. Elections to zemstvo assemblies were carried out on the basis of property, age, educational and a number of other qualifications. Women and employees were denied the right to vote. This gave an advantage to the wealthiest segments of the population. Assemblies elected zemstvo councils. Zemstvos were in charge affairs of local importance, promoted entrepreneurship, education, health care - carried out work for which the state did not have funds.

Held in 1870 urban reform in character was close to the zemstvo. In major cities city ​​councils were established on the basis of all-class elections. However, elections were held on a census basis, and, for example, in Moscow only 4% of the adult population participated in them. City councils and the mayor decided issues of internal self-government, education and health care. For control for zemstvo and city activities was created presence on city affairs.

Judicial reform. Newjudicial statutes were approved on November 20, 1864. Judicial power was separated from the executive and legislative. A classless and public court was introduced, the principle of the irremovability of judges was affirmed. Two types of court were introduced - general (crown) and world. The general court was in charge of criminal cases. The trial became open, although in a number of cases cases were heard behind closed doors. The competitiveness of the court was established, the positions of investigators were introduced, the bar was established. The question of the guilt of the defendant was decided by 12 jurors. The most important principle of the reform was the recognition of the equality of all subjects of the empire before the law.

For the analysis of civil cases was introduced institute of magistrates. Appellate authority for the courts were judicial chambers you. position was introduced notary. Since 1872, major political cases were considered in Special Presence of the Governing Senate which became at the same time the highest instance of cassation.

military reform. After his appointment in 1861, D.A. Milyutin as Minister of War begins the reorganization of the command and control of the armed forces. In 1864, 15 military districts were formed, directly subordinate to the Minister of War. In 1867, a military-judicial charter was adopted. In 1874, after a long discussion, the tsar approved the Charter on universal military service. A flexible conscription system was introduced. Recruitment sets were canceled, the entire male population over the age of 21 was subject to conscription. The term of service was reduced in the army to 6 years, in the navy to 7 years. Clerics, members of a number of religious sects, the peoples of Kazakhstan and Central Asia, as well as some peoples of the Caucasus and the Far North were not subject to conscription into the army. The only son, the only breadwinner in the family, was released from service. In peacetime, the need for soldiers was much less than the number of conscripts, so all those fit for service, with the exception of those who received benefits, drew lots. For those who graduated from elementary school, the service was reduced to 3 years, for those who graduated from a gymnasium - up to 1.5 years, a university or institute - up to 6 months.

financial reform. In 1860 was the State Bank was established, happened cancellation of the pay-off 2 system, which was replaced by excises 3(1863). Since 1862 the only responsible manager of budget revenues and expenditures was the Minister of Finance; the budget is made public. Was made an attempt at monetary reform (free exchange of credit notes for gold and silver at the established rate).

Education reforms. "Regulations on Primary Public Schools" of June 14, 1864 liquidated the state-church monopoly on education. Now both public and private institutions were allowed to open and maintain elementary schools. persons under the control of district and provincial school councils and inspectors. The charter of the secondary school introduced the principle of equality of all classes and religions. y, but introduced tuition fee.

Gymnasiums were divided into classical and real nye. In classical gymnasiums, humanitarian disciplines were mainly taught, in real ones - natural ones. After the resignation of the Minister of Public Education A.V. Golovnin (in 1861 D.A. Tolstoy was appointed instead of him) was accepted new gymnasium charter, retaining only classical gymnasiums, real gymnasiums were replaced by real schools. Along with male secondary education there was a system of women's gymnasiums.

University Us tav (1863) provided Universities had broad autonomy, elections of rectors and professors were introduced. School management handed over to the Council of Prof. Essorov, to whom the students were subordinate. Were Universities were opened in Odessa and Tomsk, higher courses for women were opened in St. Petersburg, Kiev, Moscow, Kazan.

As a result of the publication of a number of laws in Russia, a well-organized education system was created, including primary, secondary and higher schools .

Censorship reform. In May 1862 censorship reform began, were introduced "temporary rules”, which in 1865 was replaced by a new censorship charter. Under the new charter, preliminary censorship was abolished for books of 10 or more printed sheets (240 pages); editors and publishers could only be prosecuted in court. Periodical publications were also exempted from censorship by special permission and upon payment of a deposit of several thousand rubles, but they could be suspended administratively. Only government and scientific publications, as well as literature translated from a foreign language, could be published without censorship.

The preparation and implementation of reforms were an important factor in the socio-economic development of the country. Administrative reforms were quite well prepared, but public opinion did not always keep pace with the ideas of the reformer tsar. The variety and speed of transformations gave rise to a feeling of uncertainty and confusion in thoughts. People lost their bearings, organizations appeared, professing extremist, sectarian principles.

For economy post-reform Russia is characterized by rapid development commodity-money relations. noted growth in acreage and agricultural production, but performance Agriculture remained low. Yields and food consumption (except for bread) were 2-4 times lower than in Western Europe. At the same time, in the 1980s compared to the 50s. the average annual grain harvest increased by 38%, and its export increased by 4.6 times.

The development of commodity-money relations led to property differentiation in the countryside, the middle peasant farms were ruined, the number of poor peasants grew. On the other side, strong kulak farms appeared, some of which used agricultural machinery. All this was part of the plans of the reformers. But quite unexpectedly for them in the country the traditionally hostile attitude towards trade That is, to all new forms of activity: to the kulak, the merchant, the fence - to the successful entrepreneur.

In Russia large-scale industry was created and developed as a state. The main concern of the government after the failures of the Crimean War were enterprises that produced military equipment. The military budget of Russia in general terms was inferior to the English, French, German, but in the Russian budget it had more significant weight. Special attention applied to development of heavy industry and transport. It was in these areas that the government directed funds, both Russian and foreign.

The growth of entrepreneurship was controlled by the state on the basis of the issuance of special orders, That's why the big bourgeoisie was closely connected with the state. Quickly an increase in the number of industrial workers However, many workers retained economic and psychological ties with the countryside, they carried a charge of discontent among the poor who lost their land and were forced to seek food in the city.

The reforms laid the foundation new system loan. For 1866-1875. It was 359 joint-stock commercial banks, mutual credit societies and other financial institutions have been established. Since 1866, they began to actively participate in their work. major European banks. As a result state regulation foreign loans and investments went mainly to railway construction. The railroads ensured the expansion of the economic market in the vast expanses of Russia; they were also important for the operational transfer of military units.

In the second half of the 19th century political situation changed in the country many times.

During the preparation of the reforms, from 1855 to 1861, the government retained the initiative of action, attracted all the supporters of the reforms - from the highest bureaucracy to the democrats. Subsequently, the difficulties with reforms exacerbated the domestic political situation in the country. The struggle of the government against opponents from the "left" acquired a cruel character: the suppression of peasant uprisings, the arrests of liberals, the defeat of the Polish uprising. The role of the III Security (gendarme) department was strengthened.

V 1860s radical movement entered the political arena populists. Raznochintsy intelligentsia, based on revolutionary democratic ideas and nihilism DI. Pisarev, created the theory of revolutionary populism. The populists believed in the possibility of achieving socialism, bypassing capitalism, through the liberation of the peasant community - the rural "peace". "Rebel" M.A. Bakunin predicted a peasant revolution, the fuse of which was to be lit by the revolutionary intelligentsia. P.N. Tkachev was the theorist of a coup d'état, after which the intelligentsia, having carried out the necessary transformations, would liberate the community. P.L. Lavrov substantiated the idea of ​​thorough preparation of the peasants for the revolutionary struggle. V 1874 began a mass "going to the people”, but the agitation of the populists failed to ignite the flame of a peasant uprising.

In 1876 arose organization "Land and freedom", which in 1879 split into two groups.

Group " Black redistribution” headed by G.V. Plekhanov focused on propaganda;

« Narodnaya Volya” headed by A.I. Zhelyabov, N.A. Morozov, S.L. Perovskaya in brought to the fore political struggle . The main means of struggle, in the opinion of the Narodnaya Volya, was individual terror, regicide, which was supposed to serve as a signal for a popular uprising. In 1879-1881. Narodnaya Volya held a series assassination attempt on Alexander II.

In a situation of acute political confrontation, the authorities embarked on the path of self-defense. February 12, 1880 was established "Supreme Administrative Commission for the Protection of State Order and Public Peace» headed by M.P. Loris-Melikov. Having received unlimited rights, Loris-Melikov achieved a suspension of the terrorist activities of the revolutionaries and some stabilization of the situation. In April 1880 the commission was liquidated; Loris-Melikov was appointed Minister of the Interior and began to prepare the completion of the "great cause of state reforms". The drafting of the final reform laws was entrusted to the "people" - temporary preparatory commissions with a wide representation of zemstvos and cities.

On February 5, 1881, the submitted bill was approved by Emperor Alexander II. " Constitution of Loris-Melikov” provided for the election of “representatives from public institutions ...” to the highest bodies of state power. In the morning March 1, 1881 the emperor appointed a meeting of the Council of Ministers to approve the bill; in just a few hours Alexander II was killed members of the People's Will organization.

New Emperor Alexander III March 8, 1881 held a meeting of the Council of Ministers to discuss the Loris-Melikov project. At the meeting, the Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Synod K.P. Pobedonostsev and head State Council S.G. Stroganov. The resignation of Loris-Melikov soon followed.

V May 1883 Alexander III proclaimed a course called in the historical-materialist literature " counter-reforms», and in the liberal-historical one - "adjustment of reforms". He expressed himself as follows.

In 1889, to strengthen supervision over the peasants, the positions of zemstvo chiefs with broad rights were introduced. They were appointed from local landowning nobles. The clerks and small merchants, other poor sections of the city, lost their suffrage. Judicial reform has undergone a change. In the new regulation on the zemstvos of 1890, the representation of estates and nobility was strengthened. In 1882-1884. many publications were closed, the autonomy of universities was abolished. primary schools were transferred to the church department - the Synod.

These activities showed the idea of ​​an "official nation"» times of Nicholas I - the slogan « Orthodoxy. Autocracy. Spirit of Humility was consonant with the slogans of a bygone era. The new official ideologists of K.P. Pobedonostsev (Chief Prosecutor of the Synod), M.N. Katkov (editor of Moskovskie Vedomosti), Prince V. Meshchersky (publisher of the newspaper Grazhdanin) omitted the word "people" from the old formula "Orthodoxy, autocracy and the people" as "dangerous"; they preached the humility of his spirit before the autocracy and the church. In practice, the new policy resulted in an attempt to strengthen the state by relying on the traditionally loyal to the throne nobility. Administrative measures were reinforced economic support for landowners.

History of Russia from the beginning of the XVIII to the end of the XIX century Bokhanov Alexander Nikolaevich

§ 4. Liberal reforms of the 60-70s

Russia approached the peasant reform with an extremely backward and neglected local (zemstvo, as they used to say) economy. Medical assistance in the village was practically non-existent. Epidemics claimed thousands of lives. The peasants did not know the elementary rules of hygiene. Public education could not get out of its infancy. Individual landowners who maintained schools for their peasants closed them immediately after the abolition of serfdom. Nobody cared about country roads. Meanwhile, the state treasury was exhausted, and the government could not raise the local economy on its own. Therefore, it was decided to meet the needs of the liberal public, which petitioned for the introduction of local self-government.

On January 1, 1864, the law on zemstvo self-government was approved. It was established to manage economic affairs: the construction and maintenance of local roads, schools, hospitals, almshouses, to organize food assistance to the population in lean years, for agronomic assistance and the collection of statistical information.

The administrative bodies of the zemstvo were provincial and district zemstvo assemblies, and the executive bodies were district and provincial zemstvo councils. To fulfill their tasks, the zemstvos received the right to impose a special tax on the population.

Zemstvo elections were held every three years. In each county, three electoral congresses were created to elect deputies of the county zemstvo assembly. The first congress was attended by landowners, regardless of class, who had at least 200-800 dessiatins. land (the land qualification for different counties was not the same). The second congress included city owners with a certain property qualification. The third, peasant, congress was attended by elected representatives from volost assemblies. Each of the congresses elected a certain number of vowels. District zemstvo assemblies elected provincial zemstvo councillors.

As a rule, nobles predominated in zemstvo assemblies. Despite conflicts with liberal landlords, the autocracy considered the local nobility to be its main support. Therefore, the Zemstvo was not introduced in Siberia and in the Arkhangelsk province, where there were no landowners. Zemstvo was not introduced in the Don Cossack Region, in the Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces, where Cossack self-government existed.

Zemstvos have played a large positive role in improving the life of the Russian countryside, in the development of education. Soon after their creation, Russia was covered with a network of zemstvo schools and hospitals.

With the advent of the Zemstvo, the balance of power in the Russian provinces began to change. Previously, all affairs in the counties were handled by government officials, together with the landowners. Now, when a network of schools, hospitals and statistical bureaus has unfolded, a “third element” has appeared, as zemstvo doctors, teachers, agronomists, and statisticians have come to be called. Many representatives of the rural intelligentsia showed high standards of service to the people. They were trusted by peasants, councils listened to their advice. Government officials watched with concern the growing influence of the "third element".

According to the law, the Zemstvos were purely economic organizations. But soon they began to play an important political role. In those years, the most enlightened and humane landowners usually went to the zemstvo service. They became vowels of zemstvo assemblies, members and chairmen of administrations. They stood at the origins of the zemstvo liberal movement. And the representatives of the "third element" were attracted to the left, democratic, currents of social thought.

On similar grounds, in 1870, a reform of city self-government was carried out. The issues of improvement, as well as the management of school, medical and charitable affairs, were subject to the patronage of city dumas and councils. Elections to the City Duma were held in three electoral congresses (small, medium and large taxpayers). Workers who did not pay taxes did not participate in the elections. The mayor and the council were elected by the Duma. The mayor headed both the Duma and the Council, coordinating their activities. City dumas carried out a lot of work on the improvement and development of cities, but in the social movement they were not as noticeable as the zemstvos. This was due to the long-standing political inertia of the merchants and the business class.

Simultaneously with the Zemstvo reform, in 1864, a judicial reform was carried out. Russia received a new court: classless, public, competitive, independent of the administration. Court hearings became open to the public.

The central element of the new judicial system was the district court with jurors. The prosecution was supported by the prosecutor. The defender objected. Jurors, 12 people, were appointed by lot from representatives of all classes. After hearing the arguments, the jury returned a verdict (“guilty”, “not guilty”, or “guilty but deserves leniency”). Based on the verdict, the court issued a sentence. Russian general criminal law at that time did not know such a measure of punishment as the death penalty. Only special judicial bodies (military courts, the Special Presence of the Senate) could sentence to death.

Small cases were dealt with by the world court, which consisted of one person. The magistrate was elected by the zemstvo assemblies or city dumas for three years. The government could not by its power remove him from office (as well as the judges of the district court). The principle of irremovability of judges ensured their independence from the administration. The judicial reform was one of the most consistent and radical transformations of the 60s and 70s.

Yet the judicial reform of 1864 remained unfinished. To resolve conflicts among the peasantry, the estate volost court was retained. This was partly due to the fact that peasant legal concepts were very different from general civil ones. A magistrate with a "Code of Laws" would often be powerless to judge the peasants. The volost court, which consisted of peasants, judged on the basis of the customs existing in the area. But he was too exposed to the influence of the wealthy upper classes of the village and all sorts of bosses. The volost court and the mediator had the right to award corporal punishment. This shameful phenomenon existed in Russia until 1904.

In 1861, General Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin (1816–1912) was appointed minister of war. Taking into account the lessons of the Crimean War, he carried out a number of important reforms. They had the goal of creating large trained reserves with a limited peacetime army. At the final stage of these reforms, in 1874, a law was passed that abolished recruitment and extended the obligation to serve in the army to men of all classes who had reached the age of 20 and were fit for health reasons. In the infantry, the service life was set at 6 years, in the navy - at 7 years. For those who graduated from higher educational institutions, the term of service was reduced to six months. These benefits have become an additional incentive for the dissemination of education. The abolition of recruitment, along with the abolition of serfdom, significantly increased the popularity of Alexander II among the peasantry.

The reforms of the 1960s and 1970s are a major phenomenon in the history of Russia. New, modern self-government bodies and courts contributed to the growth of the country's productive forces, the development of civil consciousness of the population, the spread of education, and the improvement of the quality of life. Russia joined the pan-European process of creating advanced, civilized forms of statehood based on the self-activity of the population and its will. But these were only the first steps. The remnants of serfdom were strong in local government, and many noble privileges remained intact. The reforms of the 1960s and 1970s did not affect the upper levels of power. The autocracy and the police system, inherited from past eras, were preserved.

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Reforms of the 60s - 70s of the 19th century in Russia, their consequences

By the middle of the 19th century. Russia's lagging behind the advanced capitalist states in the economic and socio-political spheres was clearly manifested. International events (the Crimean War) showed a significant weakening of Russia in the foreign policy field as well. So main goal domestic policy of the government in the second half of the 19th century. was bringing the economic and socio-political system of Russia in line with the needs of the time. In the domestic policy of Russia in the second half of the 19th century. three stages are distinguished: 1) the second half of the 50s - the beginning of the 60s - the preparation and implementation of the peasant reform; 2) - 60-70s carrying out liberal reforms; 3) 80-90s economic modernization, strengthening of statehood and social stability by traditional conservative administrative methods. The defeat in the Crimean War played the role of an important political prerequisite for the abolition of serfdom, because it demonstrated the backwardness and rottenness of the country's socio-political system. Russia has lost international prestige and nearly lost influence in Europe. The eldest son of Nicholas 1 - Alexander 11 came to the throne in 1855. He was quite well prepared for the management of the state. He received an excellent education and upbringing. His mentor was the poet Zhukovsky and he influenced the formation of the personality of the future tsar. From a young age, Alexander joined the military service and by the age of 26 he became a “full general”. Traveling in Russia and Europe expanded the horizons of the heir. His father attracted him to public service. He was in charge of the activities of the Secret Committees on the Peasant Question. And the 36-year-old emperor was psychologically and practically prepared to become the initiator of the liberation of the peasants as the first person in the state. Therefore, he went down in history as the "Liberator" king. His phrase about “it is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait until it begins to be abolished from below” meant that the ruling circles finally came to the idea of ​​the need to reform the state. Members of the royal family, representatives of the highest bureaucracy took part in the preparation of the reforms - Minister of Internal Affairs Lanskoy, Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs - Milyutin, Adjutant General Rostovtsev. After the abolition of the kr.prav, it became necessary to change local government in 1864. zemstvo reform. Zemstvo institutions (zemstvos) were created in provinces and districts. These were elected bodies from representatives of all estates. The entire population was divided into 3 electoral groups - curia. 1 curia - landowners with > 2 acres of land or owners of real estate from 15,000 rubles; 2 curia - urban, urban industrialists and merchants with a turnover of at least 6,000 rubles / year were allowed here; 3 curia - rural. For the rural curia, the elections were multistage. The curiae were dominated by landlords. Zemstvos were deprived of any political functions. The scope of their activities was limited to solving economic issues of local importance: the arrangement and maintenance of communication lines, zemstvo schools and hospitals, care for trade and industry. The zemstvos were under the control of the central and local authorities, who had the right to suspend any decision of the zemstvo assembly. Despite this, the zemstvos played a huge role in the development of education and health care. And they became the centers of the formation of the liberal noble and bourgeois opposition. The structure of zemstvo institutions: It is a legislative and executive body. The chairmen were local marshals of the nobility. Provincial and county assemblies worked independently of each other. They met only once a year to coordinate actions. Executive bodies - provincial and district councils were elected at zemstvo meetings. Solved the problem of tax collection, while a certain% remained in place. Zemstvo institutions were subordinate only to the Senate. The governor did not interfere in the activities of local institutions, but only monitored the legality of actions.

Positivity in the reform:

all-estate Flaws:

electivity

the beginning of the separation of powers was not admitted to the center of the state institution,

the beginning of the formation of civil society consciousness could not influence the policy of the center

were given unequal voting rights

contacts between zemstvos were forbidden

urban reform. (1870) "City Regulations" created all-estate bodies in the cities - city dumas and city councils headed by the mayor. They dealt with the improvement of the city, took care of trade, provided educational and medical needs. The leading role belonged to the big bourgeoisie. It was under the strict control of the government administration.

The candidacy of the mayor was approved by the governor.

Electivity was granted for 3 curiae: 1 - industrialists and merchants (1/3 of taxes), 2 - medium-sized entrepreneurs (1/3), 3 - all the population of the mountains. Of the 707 provinces, 621 received a ref. MSU. The competencies are the same, the disadvantages are the same.

Judicial reform :

1864 - New court statutes promulgated.

Provisions:

the estate system of courts was abolished

all were declared equal before the law

publicity was introduced

competitiveness of legal proceedings

presumption of innocence

irremovability of judges

unified system of justice

a court of two types was created: 1. Magistrates' courts - they considered minor civil cases, the damage in which did not exceed 500 rubles. Judges were elected at county assemblies and approved by the senate. 2. General courts were of 3 types: Criminal and grave - in district court. Particularly important state and political crimes were considered in judicial chamber. The highest court was Senate. Judges in general courts were appointed by the tsar, and jurors were elected at provincial assemblies.

Flaws: small estate courts continued to exist - for the peasants. For political processes, a Special Presence of the Senate was created, meetings were held behind closed doors, which violated the attack of publicity.

Military reform : 1874 - Charter on military service on the all-class military service of men who have reached the age of 20. The term of active service was set in the ground forces - 6 years, in the navy - 7 years. Recruiting was abolished. The terms of active military service were determined by the educational qualification. Persons with higher education served 0.5 years. To raise the competence of the top military leadership, the military ministry was transformed into general staff. The whole country was divided into 6 military regions. The army was reduced, military settlements were liquidated. In the 60s, the rearmament of the army began: the replacement smoothbore weapons rifled, the introduction of steel artillery pieces, the improvement of the horse fleet, the development of the military steam fleet. For the training of officers, military gymnasiums, cadet schools and academies were created. All this made it possible to reduce the size of the army in peacetime and, at the same time, to increase its combat effectiveness.

They were exempted from military duty if there was 1 child in the family, if they had 2 children, or if elderly parents were on his payroll. Cane discipline was abolished. Humanization of relations in the army has passed.

Reform in the field of education : 1864 In fact, an accessible all-estate education was introduced. Zemstvo, parochial, Sunday and private schools arose along with state schools. Gymnasiums were divided into classical and real ones. The curriculum in gymnasiums was determined by universities, which created the possibility of a system of succession. During this period, secondary education for women was developed, and women's gymnasiums began to be created. Women are beginning to be admitted to universities as free students. University arr.: Alexander 2 gave the universities more freedom:

students could create student orgs

received the right to create their own newspapers and magazines without censorship

all volunteers were admitted to the universities

students were given the right to choose a rector

stud self-management was introduced in the form of a council of a fact

corporative systems of students and teachers were created.

Significance of reforms:

contributed to the more rapid development of capitalist relations in Russia.

contributed to the beginning of the formation of bourgeois freedoms in the Russian society (freedom of speech, personality, organizations, etc.). The first steps were taken to expand the role of the public in the life of the country and turn Russia into a bourgeois monarchy.

contributed to the formation of civic consciousness.

contributed to the rapid development of culture and education in Russia.

The initiators of the reforms were some top government officials, the “liberal bureaucracy”. This explained the inconsistency, incompleteness and narrowness of most of the reforms. The logical continuation of the reforms of 60-70 could be the adoption of moderate constitutional proposals developed in 1881 by the Minister of Internal Affairs Loris-Melikov. They assumed the development of local self-government, the involvement of zemstvos and cities (with an advisory vote) in the discussion of national issues. But the assassination of Alexander II changed the course of the government. And the proposal of Loris-Melikov was rejected. The implementation of reforms gave impetus to the rapid growth of capitalism in all areas of industry. A free labor force appeared, the process of capital accumulation became more active, the domestic market expanded and ties with the world grew. Features of the development of capitalism in the industry of Russia had a number of features: 1) Industry wore multilayered character, i.e. large-scale machine industry coexisted with manufacturing and small-scale (handicraft) production. Also observed 2) uneven distribution of industry across the territory of Russia. Highly developed areas of St. Petersburg, Moscow. Ukraine 0- highly developed and undeveloped - Siberia, Central Asia, Far East. 3)Uneven development by industry. Textile production was the most advanced in technical equipment, heavy industry (mining, metallurgical, oil) was gaining rapid pace. Mechanical engineering was poorly developed. Characteristic for the country was state intervention in the industrial sector through loans, government subsidies, government orders, financial and customs policy. This laid the foundation for the formation of a system of state capitalism. The insufficiency of domestic capital caused an influx of foreign capital. Investors from Europe were attracted by cheap labor, raw materials and, consequently, the possibility of making high profits. Trade. In the second half of the 18th century completed the formation of the all-Russian market. The main commodity was agricultural products, primarily bread. Trade in manufactured goods grew not only in the city, but also in the countryside. sold widely iron ore, coal. Wood, oil. Foreign trade - bread (export). Cotton was imported (imported) from America, metals and cars, luxury goods from Europe. Finance. The State Bank was created, which received the right to issue banknotes. State funds were distributed only by the Ministry of Finance. Established private and public credit system, it contributed to the development of the most important industries (railway construction). Foreign capital was invested in banking, industry, railway construction and played a significant role in the financial life of Russia. Capitalism in Russia was established in 2 stages. 60-70 years were the 1st stage, when the restructuring of industry was going on. 80-90 economic recovery.

Changes in the economy and the socio-political sphere required greater independence, and hence the legal protection of citizens - therefore, the question of reforming the judicial system, which implied the independence of judges, the introduction of a classless jury trial, etc., was ripe.

The crisis state of the state mechanism of Russia during this period became obvious. This was a necessary prerequisite for realizing the inevitability of reform. "By the end of the Crimean campaign," Obolensky recalled, "one could feel the inevitability of substantial reforms."

Actively addressed one of the most pressing issues - the reform of justice. Two trends are evident here. The first is to show the worthlessness of domestic justice and the exemplary state of justice in Western countries. The second is to substantiate the necessary legislative changes in justice. There were proposals for the destruction of clerical secrets, for the introduction of publicity and publicity of legal proceedings. Publicity in court was determined by the requirements of publicity in public life.

This deeply thought-out reform had a strong and direct influence on the entire system of state and public life. She introduced into it completely new, long-awaited principles - the complete separation of the judiciary from the administrative and accusatory, the publicity and openness of the court, the independence of judges, the advocacy and the adversarial procedure for legal proceedings. The country was divided into 108 judicial districts.

The essence of judicial reform is as follows:

• - the court is made oral and public;
• - judicial power is separated from accusatory power and belongs to the courts without any participation of administrative power;
• - the main form of legal proceedings is an adversarial process;
• - the case on the merits can be dealt with no more than in two instances. Two types of courts were introduced: world and general. The magistrate's courts, represented by a magistrate, tried criminal and civil cases, the damage in which did not exceed 500 rubles. Justices of the peace were elected by district zemstvo assemblies, approved by the Senate, and could be dismissed only at their own request or by court order. The general court consisted of three instances: the district court, the judicial chamber, the Senate. The district courts heard serious civil suits and criminal (juror) cases. The Trial Chambers heard appeals and were the court of first instance for political and state affairs. The Senate was the highest judicial instance and could cancel the decisions of the courts submitted for cassation.
• - in cases of crimes entailing penalties, coupled with the deprivation of all or some of the rights and benefits of the state, the determination of guilt is provided to jurors elected from local inhabitants of all classes;
• - clerical secrecy is eliminated;
• - both for the application in cases and for the defense of defendants, there are sworn attorneys at the courts, who are under the supervision of special councils composed of the same corporation.

The law issued on April 17, 1863 abolished public punishment by verdicts of civil and military courts with whips, gauntlets, “cats” (lashes with slightly tarred ends), and branding. However, corporal punishment was still not completely abolished: they were retained for tax-paying estates (up to a hundred blows with rods in return for arrest in a strait or workhouse) and for peasants by the verdicts of volost courts. Women were completely exempted from corporal punishment. Rods were accepted for penal soldiers and sailors, exiles and prisoners in prison departments.

New judicial institutions were introduced - the crown and world courts.

The crown court had two instances: the first was the district court (usually within the province, which constituted the judicial district), the second was the judicial chamber, which united several judicial districts and consisted of the criminal and civil departments.

The elected jurors who took part in the trial established only the guilt or innocence of the defendant, and the judge and members of the court determined the punishment in accordance with the articles of the law. Decisions made by the district court with the participation of jurors were considered final, but without their participation they could be appealed to the judicial chamber. Decisions of district courts and judicial chambers, taken with the participation of jurors, could be appealed to the Senate only in case of violation of the lawful order of legal proceedings or the discovery of any new circumstances in the case. The Senate had the right of cassation (cancellation and revision) of court decisions. For this purpose, the cassation-criminal and cassation-civil departments were established in its composition. For the analysis of civil claims in the amount of up to 500 rubles. and petty offenses, a magistrate's court was established in the counties and cities, consisting of one judge, without jurors and lawyers, with a simplified record keeping. He provided a "quick" solution of cases, taking into account the "local estates". Justices of the peace were elected at county zemstvo assemblies, and in Moscow, St. Petersburg and Odessa - by city dumas for terms of 3 years. In provinces where there were no zemstvos, justices of the peace were appointed by the local administration. Only " local"At the age of at least 25, "not defamed by court or public verdict", having a higher or secondary education "or having served, mainly in the judiciary, for at least three years." The magistrate was the first instance, which was a magistrate. The second instance was the county congress of justices of the peace. This authority constituted the world county district. The decisions of the justice of the peace could be appealed to the county congress of justices of the peace.

Representatives and members of the judicial chambers and district courts were appointed by the emperor, and justices of the peace - by the Senate. After that, according to the law, they were not subject to either administrative dismissal or suspension from office. They could only be removed from office when they were brought to trial on criminal charges. In such cases, the court decided to remove them from office.

Judicial statutes of 1864 for the first time in Russia introduced a notary. In the capitals, provincial and county cities, notary offices were established with a staff of notaries.

The action of the judicial statutes of 1864 extended only to 44 provinces (slightly more than half of the provinces) of Russia and was introduced into them for more than thirty years. Judicial statutes did not apply to the Baltic States, Poland, Belarus, Siberia, Central Asia, northern and northeastern outskirts of European Russia.

Judicial statutes of 1864 introduced the institution of sworn attorneys - the bar, as well as the institution of judicial investigators - special officials of the judicial department, who were transferred to the preliminary investigation in criminal cases, which was withdrawn from the police. Representatives of district courts and judicial chambers were required to have higher legal education. Members of these courts were appointed persons who had served "in the judiciary" for at least three years, and judicial investigators - who had been engaged in judicial practice for at least four years. In addition to higher legal education, sworn attorneys were required to have five years of experience in judicial practice. The jurors could not be clerics, the military, teachers of public schools, as well as "defamed by the court."

Supervision over the legality of the actions of judicial institutions was carried out by the chief prosecutors of the Senate, prosecutors of the judicial chambers and district courts. They reported directly to the Minister of Justice as Attorney General.

The judicial reform of 1864 introduced an adversarial process, where the main figures were the prosecutor and the lawyer, a jury trial was introduced to determine the guilt or innocence of the defendant, the judge from the main figure became an intermediary who monitored the correctness of the process, compliance with its legal norms. Enemies of the reforms at the same time dubbed this court "the court of the street." The jury rendered a verdict of guilt or innocence. Its composition was elected from various segments of the population with a small property qualification or without a qualification, as, for example, for peasants, but only for a certain category - officials elected by peasant self-government. In 20 provinces (without the capital) in 1883, among the jurors were: nobles and officials - 14.9%, merchants - 9.4%, petty bourgeois - 18.3%, peasants - 57%. The Judicial Charters were the most consistent and radical of the reforms of the 60s of the 19th century. in Russia. They not only created a new, bourgeois court, but by establishing the norms of the legal order in the legal sphere, to a certain extent, they limited the autocratic monarchy.

So, the organization of the court case in Russia after the reform became one of the most progressive in the world, this became especially obvious after the jury delivered a number of acquittals in political trials in the case of revolutionary organizations and, in particular, terrorists (the case of Vera Zasulich about the attempted on the St. Petersburg mayor Trepov). True, political cases were soon removed from the jurisdiction of the jury. Of all the reforms of that time, it was the most consistent and one of the most significant.

There were also shortcomings of judicial reform. They consisted in the fact that small class courts continued to be preserved - for the peasants. For political processes, a Special Presence of the Senate was created, meetings were held behind closed doors, which violated the attack of publicity.