In the XIX - early XX century. embassies were few in number, and the ambassador performed many functions with his own hands. Today, although the ambassador remains in many ways a universal figure, the staff of embassies has expanded in many ways. It includes a press attaché, trade attaché, military attache, consuls, intelligence service, etc. The growing bureaucratization of embassies is a consequence of the increase in the volume and complexity of international interactions at the present time.

The irony of today, however, is that as diplomats become more professional, their role in negotiations with a foreign partner becomes less. A significant amount of the work of embassies is transferred either to international organizations, where there are representatives from the respective states, or to episodic meetings of the first persons of the states or their plenipotentiaries. There are two reasons for this state of affairs. Firstly, the development of all means of communication, which facilitates the direct communication of politicians of the highest ranks. different countries. It suffices to give such an example: the first US president who crossed the Atlantic Ocean to take part in the diplomatic end of the First World War was W. Wilson. Today, the communication of the first persons of states with the help of means of communication and directly is a daily practice. The second reason is the complication and globalization of the problems of world politics and international development requiring participation in decision-making directly by the top leadership of states. As a result, today's diplomatic practice, in contrast to previous times, is to a much greater extent connected with the activities of leading politicians ("shuttle diplomacy" by G. Kissinger, J. Baker, E. Shevardnadze).

The summits of the first persons of the states cause both public approval and criticism. On the one hand, they promote mutual understanding between leaders and eliminate bureaucratic red tape in decision-making. On the other hand, the summits are more like a performance. There is much more journalistic hype around them than the expected effect. Here is an interesting observation from an American diplomat on this subject: “What really happens at most summits where serious issues are discussed? Although serious conversations take place at the banquet table, the time allotted for food and drink is amazing in its length. At the same time, in the Middle East and in South-East Asia It is generally not customary to have discussions during meals. Wherever the meeting takes place, toasts usually replace speeches. They contain diplomatic hints, especially if the press is present. All in all, a shared meal is a waste of time... Trying to carve out the time span used for an in-depth exchange of views within a ten-hour meeting at highest level, the researcher should cut out at least four hours of eating and drinking, another two to four hours wasted on insignificant conversations...then divide the remaining time by two or one and a half, keeping in mind the work of interpreters. What is left - two or three hours - is used to determine positions and exchange views."

Multilateral diplomacy versus bilateral diplomacy

Although multilateral diplomacy became a regular practice in Europe after the Congress of Vienna in 1815, these were relatively rare events associated with international crises, post-war settlement. Since the beginning of the XX century. the role of multilateral diplomacy is growing significantly, and at present the bulk of diplomatic contacts is multilateral. To be fair, it must be said that bilateral diplomacy remains of paramount importance.

The reasons for the strengthening of the role of multilateral diplomacy are connected, first of all, with the growing number of global problems requiring joint discussion and solution. Great importance It also has the fact that many poor third world countries cannot afford to maintain embassies in other states and use international intergovernmental organizations for diplomatic contacts.

The forms of multilateral diplomacy are diverse. These are the activities of the UN and other intergovernmental organizations, international conferences and forums, including informal ones, such as, for example, the annual economic forum in Davos. After graduation cold war such a form of multilateral diplomacy as international mediation in conflict resolution has acquired special significance. This form of diplomacy has been known in history for a long time. Thus, after the war of 1905, American President Theodore Roosevelt acted as an intermediary between Russia and Japan. However, in Lately the significance of this kind of diplomatic contacts has acquired a special role in connection with the uncontrolled growth in the number of conflicts of a new generation. Examples are the participation of the great powers in the settlement of conflicts on the territory of the former Yugoslavia in the mid-1990s. (Dayton process), mediation in conflicts in the Middle East (UN, EU, USA, Russia) at present, etc.

"Multilateral Diplomacy"

Lecture I .

The concept of multilateral diplomacy. Brief history and main stages of formation. Increasing Relevance of Multilateral Diplomacy in the Age of Globalization.

1) Objective trends in the development of international relations. Globalization: the growing interconnectedness of the world economy. Formation of global markets and global information space.

2) Emergence of global threats and challenges. Changing the concept of national security, the formation of the concept of global security.

3) Multilateral negotiations and international organizations are the two main tools for finding and agreeing on solutions on a global scale.

4) Negotiations of several parties or a group of states as a complex process of developing agreements, treaties, decisions.

Negotiators: a) full participants and b) observers. Fundamentals of activities and organization of international conferences. Rules of procedure. The specifics of diplomatic work at international conferences.

Lecture II .

Multilateral Negotiation Diplomacy Features of tactics and diplomatic work.

1) Multilateral intergovernmental conferences and other forums convened on a regular basis (sessions of universal and regional organizations). Rules of procedure, features of work. Formation of governing and coordinating bodies. Use of the principle of geographical representation and rotation. Regional groups, coordinators of regional groups. Work on draft resolutions and reports, the role of the secretariat, the presidium and regional coordinators.

2) Multilateral intergovernmental conferences and forums convened outside of universal and regional organizations to consider a certain range of issues:

a) forums organized with the organizational assistance of the UN or regional organizations;

b) forums convened without the organizational support of the UN or regional organizations.

The procedure for choosing a venue for the forum and determining the circle of participants.

Sources of funding and organizational support.

Agreeing rules of procedure. Peculiarities of diplomatic training: work “in capitals”, with delegations, formation of interest groups and mutual support.

Work on final documents. The order of drafting, coordination with delegations, forms of adoption.

Lecture III .

UN. History of occurrence. Role at the present stage.

UN Charter. main organs of the United Nations.

1) History of occurrence. The forerunner of the UN - the League of Nations and its shortcomings. Decisions of the three powers during the Second World War to establish a peacekeeping organization. Conference in Dumbarton Oaks and San Francisco to draft the UN Charter.

2) UN Charter. Purposes and principles of the United Nations. Organization membership. The Growth and Pattern of Change in UN Member States from 1946 to 2000. United Nations observers. official languages, organization structure.

3) The main organs. General Assembly. Functions and powers. Sessions. committees. Features of diplomatic work at the session of the General Assembly. Security Council. Membership, features of the status of permanent members. Functions and powers. Economic and Social Council. Membership. Functions and powers. Sessions. Subsidiary and Council related bodies. Relations with non-governmental organizations. Guardian Council. Membership. Functions and powers. International Court. Statute of the International Court of Justice. Jurisdiction. Membership composition. Secretariat. Functions and powers. Head offices and departments. General Secretary. The role and place of the UN Secretary-General in the modern system international relations. UN reforms.

Lecture IV .

UN system. Programs, bodies, special institutions.

1) The concept of the UN family. Administrative Committee for the Coordination of the ACC. United Nations Headquarters and Offices. (UNICEF, UNCTAD.)

2) UN programs and bodies. United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and UNDP-related funds: United Nations Volunteers (UNV), United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM), United Nations Fund for Science and Technology for Development (UNSPF), etc. United Nations Program for Environment (UNEP), United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), UNICEF, UNCTAD, UNIDO, etc.

3) Specialized institutions and other organizations: ILO, FAO, UNESCO, ICAO, WHO, WMO, WIPO, IMF, IBRD, etc. Features of the work of special institutions. The main bodies of special institutions. Area of responsibility.

Lecture V .

1) UN Secretariat. Head offices and departments: on legal issues, on political issues, on disarmament issues, on peacekeeping operations, etc.

2) UN officials and classification of personnel. Rules for the recruitment of staff in the UN Secretariat. Principles of competence, professionalism and geographical representation. The role of the size of the contribution of member states to the UN budget in the recruitment of personnel (quotas). Secondment.

3) International Civil Service Commission. Role and functions.

4) UN Administrative Tribunal. Administrative Tribunal Review Committee.

5) UN pension system. United Nations Staff Pension Committee. United Nations Joint Staff Pension Fund.

Lecture VI .

UN peacekeeping. peacekeeping operations. Embargo and sanctions.

1) UN Charter on peaceful settlement of disputes and action in relation to threats to the peace, breaches of the peace and acts of aggression. Security Council as the main body responsible for maintaining peace and security. Security Council capabilities: issuing ceasefire directives, sending military observers or peacekeeping forces to the conflict zone, using military force coalition of UN member states or some regional organization by agreement. The role and scope of responsibility of the General Assembly: recommendations to UN member states, the Security Council, holding diplomatic negotiations, holding special or emergency special sessions on controversial issues. Resolution "Unity for Peace" and its consequences. Role of the General Secretary. Preventive diplomacy, mediation, consultation, etc. Peacekeeping operations: decision-making and implementation. Completion of military personnel. Funding for peacekeeping operations. Cooperation with regional organizations.

2) Power Solutions: embargo and sanctions. The authorization of coercive measures is the exclusive competence of the Security Council. Examples of sanctions and embargoes (South Africa, Iraq, former Yugoslavia, Libya, Liberia, etc.). Hostilities. (Kuwait, operation in Somalia, Luanda.)

Differences between such actions and peacekeeping operations.

Strengthening the world. Election control. Peacemaking through development.

Current peacekeeping operations.

Antiterrorist operation in Afghanistan.

Lecture VII .

Economic activity of the United Nations. The system of bodies, programs and special institutions involved in economic activity. Strategy of "sustainable" development.

1) Coordination of development activities. The role of ECOSOC. United Nations Development Decade. United Nations Regional Commissions for Economic and Social Development. Executive Committee on Economic and Social Affairs and United Nations Development Group. Benefits of securing development through the UN: universality, impartiality, global presence, comprehensive commitment.

2) The role of UNDP. UNDP Offices in Developing Countries (Resident Coordinators). Development lending. Role of IBRD, IDA and IFC. activities of the IMF. UNCTAD has a key role to play in addressing trade, finance, technology and sustainable development challenges. Tasks and functions of UNCTAD.

3) International Trade Center UNCTAD/WTO. The field of activity of the Center for International Trade. Scope of work FAO, UNIDO, ILO, ICAO, IMO, etc. The concept of "sustainable development". Agenda for the 21st century.

Lecture VIII .

UN social work. System of programs, bodies and institutions.

1) United Nations Social Development Program. ECOSOC is the main body that develops policies and priorities, approves programs. The General Assembly raises and resolves issues of social development. The Third Committee of the General Assembly includes issues related to the social sector on the agenda.

Under the auspices of ECOSOC, the main intergovernmental body dealing with social issues is the Commission for Social Development. Consists of representatives of 46 states and advises ECOSOC on the social aspects of development.

"Social Summit" in Copenhagen 1995: adoption of the Declaration and program of action. Main goals: achieving full employment, promoting social inclusion based on the protection of human rights, fair relations between men and women, accelerated development of Africa and the least developed countries, increased resources allocated for social development, universal access to education and first aid.

Main directions social activities UN: Fight against hunger, fight against poverty, fight against AIDS, children's health (UNICEF activity), adequate housing (UN Center for Human Settlements activity), education (UNESCO activity, UN University, UN Research Institute for Social Development, rights and women's issues (Commission on the Status of Women, Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women), etc.

The fight against crime and the spread of drugs.

Activities of the Center for International Crime Prevention and the United Nations Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention.

International Narcotics Control Board. Composition, powers, activities.

Anti-drug conventions.

Lecture IX

UN and human rights. UN human rights and legal work .

1 . Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Covenants of Human Rights. Political and civil rights. Conventions in the field of human rights and others regulations(such as the Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and Discrimination Based on Religion and Belief, the Declaration on the Right to Development, etc.

Organizational structure of UN human rights activities:

Human Rights Commission: composition, functions, powers. Main activities;

Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities;

High Commissioner for Human Rights: terms of reference, powers, appointment procedure.

2) Legal activity of the UN.

Organizational structure of the UN legal activity.

Special Committee on the Charter of the United Nations. Composition and field of activity.

UN Office of Legal Affairs.

International Court. Composition, competence. The role of the International Court of Justice in the settlement of disputes.

International Criminal Court: Short story formation, structure, field of activity.

International Tribunal. The order of creation, scope of activity.

International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia;

International Tribunal for Rwanda.

Activities of the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL).

UN and problems of disarmament, arms limitation and arms control.

United Nations Disarmament Mechanism. Mechanisms for monitoring and implementing agreements in the field of disarmament:

1) The First Committee of the General Assembly on Disarmament (features of work) and the UN Disarmament Commission - powers, scope, features of work. Disarmament Conference.

United Nations Department for Disarmament Affairs. Functions - servicing the General Assembly, maintaining the Register of Conventional Arms, information exchange.

United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR), field of activity, features of work.

Advisory Council on Disarmament Matters to the Secretary General. Composition, field of activity, features of work.

UN Regional Centers for Disarmament: in Asia, Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean.

United Nations Disarmament Fellowship Program.

The role of the UN in advancing and supporting proposals for arms limitation and disarmament: promoting progress in bilateral and multilateral negotiations through the adoption of General Assembly resolutions, providing expertise and human resources in multilateral negotiations.

Free Zones nuclear weapons. Antarctic Treaty, Treaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean (Tlatelolco Treaty 1967), Nuclear Free Zone Agreements: in the South Pacific (Treaty of Rarotonga 1985), in Southeast Asia (Bangkok Treaty 1995 d.) and in Africa (Pelendab Treaty 1996).

Convention on biological weapons 1975. The role of the UN in its development.

The problem of anti-personnel mines.

Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons.

2) The Conference on Disarmament is the only multilateral disarmament negotiating forum. History of formation, role at the present stage. List of participants. Rules of procedure. Features of work. Contribution of the Conference on Disarmament to reaching real agreements (Chemical Weapons Convention, Nuclear Test Ban Treaty).

3) A mechanism for monitoring and implementing agreements in the field of disarmament.

The IAEA is the competence and role of a special institution in maintaining the nuclear nonproliferation regime. IAEA safeguards and inspections.

Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), history of formation, field of activity, features of work.

The problem of monitoring compliance with the Biological Weapons Convention.

Lecture X 1.

WTO. History of formation. Features at the present stage. Organization structure. negotiation rounds.

History of occurrence. Creation and operation of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). Goals and objectives of the GATT. Transformation of GATT into universal mechanism trade regulation. Separation of the areas of competence of GATT and UNCTAD.

"Uruguay Round". Contradictions between the EU and the US, as well as developed and developing countries. The meaning of major compromises. Reaching an agreement on the transformation of the GATT into the WTO.

The role of the WTO in the regulation of international trade. structure of the WTO. Balance of interests and mechanism for working out solutions to disputable and conflict situations.

Relations between Russia and the WTO. Features of the negotiation process.

Lecture XI 1 .

Regional international organizations.

1) OSCE. History of creation and stages of formation from Helsinki to Vienna. The scope of the OSCE. Structure and procedural rules. The order of formation of organs.

Relationship with the UN.

2) Council of Europe . History of formation. Role at the present stage. Principles for the admission of states to the Council of Europe. Structure of the Organization. Features of the "parliamentary component" of the Council of Europe - PACE.

3) European Union . History of formation. Principles of activity and admission of members. Relations with pan-European structures - the OSCE and the Council of Europe. Military-political and economic component of the European Council. Prospects for the evolution of the EU. Relations with Russia.

4) NATO. History of formation. Role at the present stage. Principles of membership in the Organization. Relations with the UN, OSCE and EU. Evolution of the bloc and relations with Russia.

5) CIS. The main stages of formation and formation. Structure of the Organization, military-political and economic components, relations with the UN, OSCE and NATO.

Lecture XIII .

Regional multilateral organizations.

1) ATES. Stages of formation, principles of membership. The main tasks and purpose at the present stage. Role in the system of political and economic coordination.

2) ASEAN. Field of activity, structure, membership in the organization. Relations with APEC and other regional forums.

3) OAG. History of formation, evolution, role and tasks of the organization. Membership principles and competence. Relations between the United States and Latin American states within the framework of the OAS. Ties with Russia.

4) UAE. History of formation. Membership principles and competence. Relationship with the UN. Contribution to peacekeeping in the African region.

5) LAS - history of formation, competence, principles of membership, role at the present stage.

Lecture XIV .

Multilateral interest organizations.

1) Non-Aligned Movement. History of creation and initial tasks. Features of evolution in the period from "Cartagena to Durban". The modern structure of the movement. Features of the relationship between LTO and GBV 77. North-South dialogue and South-South dialogue.

2) D 8. History of creation and stages of evolution from the “Paris-Bonn Axis” to the “Big Eight”. Scope of competence, principles of activity. Activity structure: summits, ministerial meetings and meetings, sherpas. Relations with the UN, other universal organizations and with NAM. Russia in G 8.

3) JIG. Formation, principles of activity, membership, role and place in the system of multilateral organizations.

4) OPEC. Goals and objectives of creation, membership, features of activity at the present stage. Relations with Russia.

Lecture XV .

Organization of multilateral diplomacy in the diplomatic service of Russia.

The units of the central apparatus of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, engaged in the direction of multilateral diplomacy:

Department of International Organizations (DIO);

Department for Security and Disarmament Affairs (DVBR);

Department of Pan-European Cooperation (DOS);

Legal Department (DL);

Department of Economic Cooperation (DES);

Department for Compatriot Affairs and Human Rights (DSHR);

Department for Cultural Relations and UNESCO Affairs (DKSU);

Interdepartmental Commission on International Organizations. Coordinating role of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Functions of the Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs for International Organizations. The procedure for determining the political line of Russia in specific multilateral organizations. Determination of contributions to the budgets of multilateral organizations. Training of personnel for multilateral diplomacy.

Lecture XVI .

Permanent missions of the Russian Federation to international organizations.

Permanent Mission of the Russian Federation to the UN in New York. Structure and main divisions.

Permanent Mission to the United Nations in Geneva. Structure and functions.

Permanent representation to international organizations in Vienna. Structure and functions.

Features of the form of representation in Nairobi and Bangkok.

Permanent Mission of the Russian Federation to the OSCE.

Permanent Mission to NATO.

Permanent Mission to the EU.

Permanent Mission to the Council of Europe.

Forms of representation in the OAS and other regional organizations.

Features of diplomatic work with multilateral organizations in which Russia participates and in which there are no permanent representations (G 8, APEC, etc.).

Features of the passage of diplomatic service when working in the secretariats of international organizations.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The concept of foreign policy of the Russian Federation. "International Life", 2000, No. 8-9,

A. Zagorsky, M. Lebedeva. Theory and methodology of the analysis of international negotiations. M., 1989

V. Petrovsky. Diplomacy as a means of good governance. International Affairs, 1998, No. 5, p. 64-70.

V. Israelyan. diplomats face to face. M., 1990

Israelian bilateral and multilateral diplomatic negotiations. M., 1988

Rules of procedure in multilateral diplomacy. M., 1986

The role of multilateral diplomacy in modern world. "International Life". 1987, No. 8. p. 113-119.

UN: key facts. M., 2000

Diplomacy. M., Ladomir, 1994

History of diplomacy. M. 1959.

Volume 1 Section One : Chapter 2. Diplomacy of Ancient Greece.

Section Two : Chapter 3. The first international congresses.

Section Four : Chapter 5. Congress of Vienna 1814-15 Chapter II. Congress of Paris 1856

Volume II . Chapter 4. Congress of Berlin 1878

Volume III . Chapter 6. Treaty of Versailles 1919, creation of the League of Nations.

Chapter 11. The Genoa and Hague Conferences of 1922

Chapter 16 Locarno Conference 1925

Chapter 19

Volume IV . Chapter XIII. Conference of the leaders of the three powers - the USSR, the USA and England - in Tehran.

Chapter XVII. Crimean conference.

Volume V . Chapter 2 and 3. The Paris Peace Conference of 1946. The work of the Ministerial Council.

Chapter 7. Creation of the UN. the first years of its activity.

Chapter 11. Geneva agreements on Indochina.

Chapter 12 Bandung Conference 1955

Diplomatic Dictionary. M. 1986, (Conferences international and

others, the United Nations, etc.).

Collection of documents of the Moscow, Tehran, Crimean, Berlin conferences, European Consultative Commission, M, 1946, USSR Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

UN Charter.

Rules of Procedure of the UN General Assembly.

Provisional Rules of Procedure of the United Nations Security Council.

International organizations of the UN system. M. "International Relations". 1990.

Diplomacy is traditionally seen as essential tool implementation of the foreign policy of states. In the narrow sense of the word, diplomacy is understood as the art of negotiating and concluding agreements between states. In a broader sense, it is the activity of state bodies of foreign relations to represent the state abroad in order to achieve the goals of foreign policy and peacefully protect its rights and interests abroad.

In the Diplomatic Dictionary, published in the USSR in 1984, diplomacy included “the official activities of heads of state and government, foreign ministers, foreign affairs departments, diplomatic missions abroad, delegations at international conferences to implement the goals and objectives of the state’s foreign policy, protect rights and interests of the state, its institutions and citizens abroad.

The formation of the modern model of diplomacy took place in the course of a long historical evolution. A detailed historical overview of the emergence and main stages in the development of diplomacy from ancient world until the 20th century was made in the fundamental multi-volume scientific work "History of Diplomacy". According to the authors of this work, "one can speak of diplomacy in the true sense of the word only with the development of the state."

Although the arsenal of forms and methods of diplomatic activity in the course of historical development was constantly replenished, however, bilateral relations between states remained the dominant form of diplomatic missions for many centuries.

Permanent diplomatic missions and resident ambassadors, special state departments involved in foreign policy, appeared in the Italian city-states from the 14th century. Gradually, these institutions were adopted by other states.

The multinational continental states that arose at the dawn of European history: the Ancient Roman Empire (I - IV centuries), the Frankish, the Carolingian Empire ( first half IX century) and Germanic, or Sacred; The Roman Empire - in some cases used the methods of multilateral diplomacy, but they were rather an exception; than the rule, and were not a necessary and integral part4 of the entire system of international relations.

After the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476, a medieval civilization began to form in Europe, one of the distinguishing features of which was the strengthening of the role of Christianity in the life of its peoples. .

The Holy Roman Empire was a conglomeration of feudal states and possessions. The main mission of uniting the disunited and chaotic Western world was assumed by the only organized force of that time, the Christian Church of the Form of Diplomacy; including multilateral ones, turned out to be subordinated not to the interests of this or that. another state, but the tasks that the church as an institution solved.

The Holy See in medieval Europe began to make attempts to substantiate the supremacy of supra-secular spiritual power, to create a pan-European theocratic monarchy under the primacy of the papacy, and to induce all the Christian sovereigns of Europe to recognize themselves as its vassals. His diplomatic practice was also devoted to the solution of these problems. The Pope of Rome acted as the supreme arbiter of relations between medieval rulers, crowned the secular monarchs of Europe as emperors, convened church councils, which at that moment served as one of the most important forms of multilateral diplomacy of the church. In 1095, in Clermont, Pope Urban II convened a Church Council, at which he personally called for help to the Orthodox Byzantines. This event can be attributed to one of the forms of multilateral diplomacy of the Holy See.

In an effort to preserve and consolidate its positions in changing conditions, the Roman Catholic Church in the 15th century began to invite to the Ecumenical Councils, in addition to churchmen, representatives of the Catholic monarchs of Europe, the greatest theologians and lawyers, who began to enjoy the same right to vote when discussing the most important issues of European politics.

In the late 50s - early 60s. In the 15th century, Pope Pius II attempted to replace the ecumenical councils new form multilateral diplomacy - a congress of all Christian sovereigns of Europe with the aim of uniting them under their leadership in countering the advance of the "infidels" deep into the European continent. However, this initiative of Pius II did not meet with the support of the monarchs and was not implemented.

At the beginning of the XIV century, the strengthening of centralized monarchies based on secular principles in many countries of Western Europe led to the fall of the papal theocracy. The era of her diplomacy was coming to an end. Big influence the development of international relations in Europe during this period was influenced by the political theory of balance or balance of power, in the interests of observing which states began to form various combinations of coalitions and alliances. This practice marked the beginning of a new stage in the development of multilateral diplomacy as an institution. The Hanseatic League of North German states, which became the prototype of future international organizations, made a significant contribution to the development of various forms of multilateral diplomacy.

The beginning of the process of formation of sovereign states in Europe turned out to be associated with the establishment of an absolutist form of government in many of them. The absolutist and dynastic nature of their new power structures introduced new elements into the means of multilateral diplomacy: in interstate relations, dynastic ties and marriages, as well as hereditary issues, became relatively more important.

The multilateral diplomacy of that time began to focus on efforts to create various coalitions and alliances of sovereign states, as well as to prepare and hold international congresses. As T.V. Zonov, “congresses assumed a purely political nature of the meeting, the purpose of which was, as a rule, to sign a peace treaty or to develop a new political and territorial structure. Participation in the congresses of the heads of state gave them a special solemnity.

The tools of multilateral diplomacy were very successfully used by the France of Emperor Napoleon I in the fight against the Holy Roman Empire. The Confederation of the Rhine, created by it in 1806 from 16 German states, broke with the empire and liquidated all its institutions on its territory on the left bank of the Rhine. As a result, in the same year, the end of the empire was officially announced. The first international organization, the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine, emerged in 1804 on the basis of an agreement between Germany and France and was caused by the need to regulate and ensure unhindered navigation on the Rhine. It was officially established by the Congress of Vienna on June 9, 1815.

At the beginning of the 20th century, everything: a wider application1 receives such a form of multilateral diplomacy as a diplomatic conference. Such conferences were held, among others, in London and Bucharest in 1912 with the aim of ending the Balkan Wars. In general, the conference XIX - early XX centuries. focused their work on specific issues or became preparatory stages for the convening of congresses. .

The development of the practice of multilateral diplomacy has become an important indicator of the growing need of states to jointly solve certain problems that affect them. common interests. The activation of multilateral diplomacy testified to the beginning of the process of deepening the interdependence of states. There was a need to create permanent international institutions as specific mechanisms, multilateral diplomacy that could regulate certain areas of relations between sovereign states and act on an ongoing basis.

The emergence in the 19th century of such institutions of multilateral diplomacy as international organizations was facilitated by the fact that by the time they appeared, a number of norms and institutions of international law had already been formed, which were necessary for their activities. During this period, the main features of international organizations began to be affirmed: their legal nature, the permanent nature of work, the structure and basic principles of activity. .

In the 20th century, the organizational structure of multilateral diplomacy became much more complicated. Its highest form is international organizations that have their own charter, budget, headquarters and secretariat. Service in them began to be called the international civil service and subject to special regulatory regulation

Within the framework of multilateral diplomacy, meetings can be held between representatives of various groupings of states united according to geographical, ethnic, military-economic and other principles, which is called parity diplomacy. The practice of holding preparatory conferences at the level of experts or high diplomatic officials has received some development. Such actions" took place in the process of discussing the proposal to convene a pan-European meeting.

The activity of international organizations and conferences provides for the holding of plenary meetings, meetings of commissions, committees, subcommissions, working groups with carefully developed voting procedures (simple, qualified, absolute majority, consensus). .

Executive secretariats of conferences held by international organizations are being created. They are presented with letters of credence from the heads of delegations. Persons or delegations sent by states to participate in such conferences belong to the category of special missions (ad hoc), the status of which is regulated by the 1969 Convention on Special Missions (entered into force on June 21, 1985).

Conferences, as a rule, elect a chairman, his deputy, determine the order of speeches, voting and other procedural issues. The final documents of conferences are often signed by the chairman of the conference and the chairmen of the conference committees. During the discussion of the idea of a pan-European conference on security and cooperation in Europe, as well as during the preparatory work for its convocation, both traditional and new forms of multilateral diplomacy were used, the essence of which will be discussed in the next section of the work.

Multilateral diplomacy

Multilateral diplomacy- a form of diplomacy within the framework of international organizations, carried out through delegations and permanent missions of states to international organizations.

in the diplomatic dictionary multilateral diplomacy is commonly understood as "diplomatic activity involving representatives of several states related to the work of international intergovernmental organizations and conferences, negotiations, consultations, etc."

At present, most researchers call modern diplomacy conference or multilateral par excellence. Famous diplomat IN AND. Popov relates this phenomenon to:

the emergence of global problems in the solution of which many states are interested
with a significant increase in the number of states in the world
· with the need for the participation of most or all states of the world in solving emerging problems.

Now the overwhelming most international conferences are held by one or another international organization or under its auspices. There has been a tendency to consider international conferences and congresses as one of the forms of regular activity of international organizations. International congresses and conferences held outside the system of international organizations are often regarded as an independent form of multilateral diplomacy.

Multilateral the negotiation process can take place both within the organizations themselves and during the work of the regular international conferences they convene, as well as outside the organizations. As a rule, special issues are discussed in detail at international conferences. At such specialized conferences, professional diplomats may not constitute the majority of participants. Politicians and experts actively participate in them. International conferences are international forums of a temporary nature. They can be: according to the composition of participants - intergovernmental, non-governmental and mixed, according to the circle of participants - universal and regional, according to the object of activity - general and special.

Other characteristics modern diplomacy identified by foreign experts in this field. For example, K. Hamilton (K. Hamilton) and R. Langhorne (R. Langhorne), speaking about the features of modern diplomacy, highlight two key points. First, its greater openness compared to the past, which is understood, on the one hand, to involve representatives of various segments of the population in diplomatic activities, and not just the aristocratic elite, as before, on the other hand, wide coverage of agreements signed by states. Secondly, intensive development of multilateral diplomacy at the level of international organizations.

The strengthening of the role of multilateral diplomacy within the framework of international organizations is also noted by many other authors. XXI century, which is called "the century of the global information society", together with its new information and communication technologies (IT), the Internet and the computerization of communications, contributes to the rapid exchange of information, and also changes the old ideas about time and space. Today, the "information revolution" has a direct impact on the formation of modern diplomacy.

The central multilateral structure in the modern world is United Nations(UN). It can be said that the UN sets the "rules of the game" for the economic diplomacy of all countries. Chapter IX of the UN Charter is called "International Economic and Social Cooperation", which states that the UN promotes:

1) raising the standard of living, full employment of the population and conditions for economic and social progress and development;
2) resolution of international problems in the field of economic, social, etc.; international cooperation in the field of culture and education;
3) universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms for all.

The processes of globalization have had a significant impact on the nature of multilateral economic diplomacy, it has acquired a number of trends:

First, it is observed expansion of the mandate leading multilateral organizations and forums beyond traditionally discussed issues. For example, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) last years discusses such non-traditional aspects for it as environmental and food security, population aging, the fight against corruption and others.
Secondly, multilateral economic diplomacy has become more representative from the point of view of the participating countries. So, at the time of the creation of the World Trade Organization WTO in 1995, its members were 125 states, by 2004 their number increased to 149.
Thirdly, the expansion of the mandate and the increase in the number of participants has led to numerous attempts institutional reform multilateral economic diplomacy. Thus, the WTO has a document called "The Future of the WTO", which contains proposals for organizational reform.
Fourthly, economic diplomacy in general, and multilateral in particular, has acquired open, worldwide public nature. Yes, many the developed countries of the world often come up with proposals addressed to the entire world community.

bilateral diplomacy, carried out on a permanent basis through the diplomatic representation of one state in the territory of another state.

At the present stage, bilateral diplomacy has a number of specific features:

1) bilateral diplomacy deals not only with individual issues of trade and economic cooperation, it directs its efforts to create an effective environment for development of such cooperation(Strategic cooperation agreements are signed).
2) Bilateral diplomacy is increasingly used as a tool for solving problems that have not been settled at the multilateral level.
3) There is a growing number of issues on the agenda of bilateral negotiations that go beyond bilateral cooperation. For example, joint projects are being developed with third countries.
4) The involvement in the negotiation process of the economic profile is increasing senior officials.
5) Happened spatial shift in bilateral economic diplomacy, that is, now not only states of the same region interact, but also states geographically distant from each other.
6) The very concept of "bilateral diplomacy" has become somewhat conditional, since more and more often one of the parties to such diplomacy is an integration association, or both parties are associations of states.

multilateral diplomacy negotiation process

· Bilateral diplomacy is often more effective than multilateral diplomacy.
· Bilateral diplomacy is inherently more flexible and more efficient than multilateral diplomacy, since it does not require numerous and time-consuming coordination of various parties.
· On the other hand, bilateral diplomacy complements multilateral diplomacy and, since, on the one hand, it serves as the basis for subsequent agreements at the multilateral level, and on the other hand, it puts the results of multilateral diplomacy into practice.

ACCORDING TO US OFFICIALS, the United States is committed to the principle of multilateralism in foreign policy. With the arrival of a new administration in the White House, it would be useful to recall the approaches of the previous administration. President George W. Bush Jr. said that solving problems together with strong partners would best promote American interests. The US sees multilateral diplomacy as essential to these efforts. Whether it's the UN, the Organization of American States, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum, or one of the many other international organizations that the United States is a member of, American diplomats work vigorously in them.

The United States National Security Strategy of 2002 stated: "The United States is guided by the conviction that no nation can build a more secure and perfect world alone" and proceed from the premise that "alliances and multilateral institutions can multiply the influence of freedom-loving countries. The United States is committed to strong institutions such as the United Nations, the World trade Organization, the Organization of American States, NATO, and other longstanding alliances."

The 2006 National Security Strategy outlined the White House's position on multilateral diplomacy: U.S. relations with the major centers of world power should be "supported by appropriate institutions, regional and global, aimed at longer-term, effective, and comprehensive cooperation. Where existing institutions can reform, make them capable of solving new problems, we must reform them together with our partners. Where the necessary institutions do not exist, we must create them together with our partners." The document also stated that "the United States supports the reform of the UN in order to increase the effectiveness of its peacekeeping operations, as well as to strengthen accountability, internal oversight and a greater focus on results of management."

Representatives of the administration of George W. Bush Jr. have regularly stated that the US is actively committed to the United Nations and the ideals upon which it was founded. The same was stated by American official documents. "The United States is one of the founding members of the UN. We want the UN to be effective, respected and successful," President George W. Bush said speaking at the 57th session of the UN General Assembly in 2002.

The United States has been the leading financial contributor to the UN budget since its inception. In 2005 and 2006 they allocated $5.3 billion each to the UN system. Because of this, the United States considers itself entitled to expect from the Organization that these funds will be spent efficiently. Deputy Secretary of State for International Organizations K. Silverberg said in September 2006 that "the United States spends more than 5 billion dollars a year in the UN" and "wants to be sure that their taxpayers' money is spent wisely and goes to improve the situation in developing countries for people suffering from human rights violations and the spread of dangerous diseases."

The position of the leading financial donor allows the United States to expect that the actions of the UN will not, in the main, conflict with US interests. Thus, the United States voted only for those peacekeeping operations that met their national interests and supported them financially, while the share of the US military in the number of UN blue helmets is 1/7 of 1%.

In the administration of George W. Bush Jr. recognized that membership in the United Nations is in the national interest of the United States. During her tenure, the long-standing debate in the United States over the costs and benefits of United Nations membership intensified. So far in the United States, there are such arguments against participation in the UN as undermining the national sovereignty of the United States and violating the powers of Congress in relation to the budget. However, awareness of the benefits has increased over time. One of the main advantages of UN membership for the United States is the ability to influence decision-making in World Organization and thus advance the goals of their foreign policy. In addition, the indisputable benefits, according to the United States, include: coordination of actions to maintain international peace and security, development of friendly ties between peoples, development of international cooperation to resolve economic, social and humanitarian problems, spreading respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.

Also, according to the United States, without collective action within the framework of the UN, there would not have been a truce in Korea in 1953 or a peaceful resolution of crises in El Salvador, Mozambique, Bosnia, East Timor. The benefits of membership in the United States include the cooperation of states in the fight against infectious diseases through the World Health Organization, the fight against hunger through the World Food Program, efforts to combat illiteracy through special UN programs, the coordination of aviation, postal transportation and telecommunications.

The United States is pursuing a broad agenda at the UN that reflects global problems issues facing foreign policy and diplomacy are the prevention of HIV/AIDS, the fight against hunger, the provision of humanitarian assistance to those in need, the maintenance of peace in Africa, the problems of Afghanistan and Iraq, the Palestinian-Israeli settlement, the problems of non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (nuclear problems of Iran and North Korea) , the fight against international terrorism, arms control and disarmament, the problems of climate change on the planet.

Under President Bush Jr. The United States returned to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), from which it left in 1984, believing that it was wasting American funds. In 2003, the United States returned to UNESCO because, in their opinion, it had spent significant financial and administrative reforms and resumed action to strengthen its founding principles. In addition, the full participation of the United States in UNESCO is important for them from the point of view of national interests, and they could not remain on the sidelines for a long time. For example, UNESCO's Education for All program, designed to make universal basic education available to all, has helped advance US educational goals.

In the 21st century, the confrontation between two ideological blocs and the threat of their direct collision with the use of nuclear weapons has been replaced by new challenges and threats: international terrorism, human trafficking, the spread of international drug networks, infectious diseases, poverty, degradation environment. In this regard, US President George W. Bush Jr. and Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice proclaimed a new diplomacy, "transformational diplomacy". The logic of the administration was that "non-viable states" cannot cope with these problems, and therefore measures are needed aimed at strengthening civil society, developing the rule of law and a culture of free elections, encouraging economic openness by reducing corruption, eliminating barriers to business, enhancing human capital through education. The new diplomacy is focused on responsible governance, economic reforms, and the development of strong regional and local organizations, both governmental and non-governmental.

In this regard, the interaction of the United States of America with the UN is determined by three principles.

The US, the White House said, wanted the UN to live up to its founders' vision of obliging all member states to contribute to international peace and security by guaranteeing their citizens freedom, health, and economic opportunity.

Further. The United States sought to ensure an effective multilateral approach. In their opinion, such diplomacy should not be limited to empty declarations, but to tangibly promote peace, freedom, sustainable development, health care and humanitarian assistance for the benefit of ordinary citizens on every continent. At the same time, if the UN does not fulfill its purpose, the United States considered itself obliged to declare it. Also, in their opinion, other countries should do the same.

Finally, the US is seeking sound management of UN resources. An effective UN must spend its resources wisely. Those who receive assistance under its programs should actually receive it. The United States was committed to working with other Member States to soundly manage and fund UN organizations and programs and to promote reforms that make the UN more capable and effective.

These three principles of US interaction with the UN, according to the White House, determined five American priorities:

To ensure the preservation of peace and the protection of civilians who are threatened by wars and tyranny;

Put multilateralism at the service of democracy, freedom and good governance. These goals were to determine almost all UN activities. The United States has made it a priority to create a situation where all members of the UN system recognize that strengthening freedom, the rule of law and effective management represents constituent part their missions. Similarly, the United States felt it necessary to vigorously support UN efforts to organize assistance to emerging democracies in holding elections, training judges, strengthening the rule of law, and reducing corruption;

Help countries and individuals in dire need. The United States has frequently endorsed the UN's efforts to provide humanitarian assistance;

Promote results-oriented economic development. According to the United States, sustainable development requires a market, economic freedom and the rule of law. In addition, foreign financial assistance can promote growth if, and only if, developing country governments first implement the necessary reforms at home;

Push for reform and budgetary discipline at the UN. Emphasis on core missions, achievement of set goals, and wise use of Member State contributions will not only improve the institutions of the United Nations, but also increase their credibility and support in the United States and elsewhere. The United States will join forces with other members to help the UN reform underperforming institutions and shut down ineffective and outdated programs. Moreover, the United States was determined to ensure that only countries that supported the founding ideals of the UN were given leadership positions.

Since the end of the Cold War, the UN has become an important foreign policy tool for the United States in its efforts to spread the values that Americans believe in. The United States believes that, as the founding state, host country, and most influential member of the United Nations, it is essential to the successful functioning of the Organization. Hence, they believe, it is very important to maintain the leading role of the United States in the UN.

The United States believes that it must prioritize and lead the various activities of the UN, oppose initiatives that are contrary to American policy, and strive to achieve its goals at the lowest cost to American taxpayers. In their view, American leadership is essential to advance core American and UN principles and values.

The United States appreciates the activities of the UN as a peacekeeper, mediator and representative of the world community in Sudan, Iraq, Afghanistan, North Korea, Haiti, Lebanon, Syria, Western Sahara, Congo, Ivory Coast, Liberia. In addition, the UN, in their opinion, plays an important role in such issues as the fight against HIV / AIDS, the elimination of the consequences of the tsunami, the fight against illiteracy, the spread of democracy, the protection of human rights, the fight against the slave trade, freedom of the media, civil Aviation, trade, development, refugee protection, food delivery, vaccination and immunization, election monitoring.

At the same time, the United States noted such shortcomings of the UN as the presence of well-meaning programs that eventually became useless and absorbing a large number of resources that could be used more efficiently. Among the shortcomings, they rank excessive politicization of issues, in connection with which it is impossible to work out solutions on them; such situations in which states come to the lowest common denominator, thus reaching agreement for the sake of agreement; and a position where countries that violate the rights of their citizens, sponsor terrorism, and engage in WMD proliferation are allowed to determine the outcome of decisions.

According to the United States, many of the problems of the UN are caused by the lack of democracy in member countries. Non-democratic states, according to Washington, do not follow the universal principles of the UN for the protection of human rights, in addition, due to the large number of such states, they have significant influence. As the United States intended, the United Nations, made up of democracies, would not face the problem of the contradiction that undermines it between state sovereignty and universal principles Organizations (for example, at one time the White House did not welcome the election of Libya as chairman of the Commission on Human Rights, and Syria, included by the United States in the list of countries supporting terrorism, to the Security Council).

The statements of the State Department noted that it is necessary to avoid blaming the failures of the entire Organization on its individual structures or on individual member states: the UN is only as effective as its members themselves want, but this does not mean that they are the source of all the troubles in the UN, because there are problems within its individual organs and structures.

Washington believed that the United Nations did not have undisputed authority and legitimacy and was not the only mechanism for making decisions about the use of force. "Those who think so are ignoring the obvious and misinterpreting the Charter of the Organization. The UN is a political association whose members protect their national interests," said US State Department Deputy Head for International Organizations C. Holmes. He also explained that the UN Security Council is not the only and not the main source of international law, even in cases relating to international peace and security. "We still live in a world organized in accordance with the Westphalian international order, where sovereign states conclude treaties. Following the terms of these treaties, including treaties within the UN itself, is an inalienable right of states and their peoples."

In 2007, Deputy Secretary of State K. Silverberg said that exclusion of the UN from the competitive process with other foreign policy instruments should be avoided. When the United States faces the problem of solving any foreign policy problem, it uses the instrument of foreign policy that it considers most suitable for itself. In this sense, for the United States, the UN system does not always have a priority: “In order to work effectively through the UN system, it is necessary to realistically assess its capabilities. Critics of the UN often do not perceive the value of multilateralism and universalism and ignore the enormous work of various UN structures. But a multilateral approach is effective only when practiced among relatively similar countries, such as in NATO. Add universal membership to this, and the difficulties increase. Add the wide scope of the bureaucracy, and it becomes even more difficult. "

In its approach to the United Nations, the administration of George W. Bush Jr. combined numerous assurances of commitment and support to the World Organization with the promotion of the view that the UN is not a key instrument for the collective regulation of international relations and the resolution of problems of international peace and security. The White House believed that the UN should be in a competitive process on a par with other foreign policy instruments, such as NATO, and when a foreign policy problem arises for the United States, they choose the tool that, in their opinion, will be most appropriate and effective for a particular situation.

Nevertheless, the United States has not abandoned multilateral diplomacy at the United Nations, which, through a network of specialized agencies, quite successfully deals with various problems. The UN is important to the United States for the realization of national interests, such as spreading its ideals and values around the world. Special meaning under President George W. Bush Jr. The United States has given the United Nations a role to play in supporting and developing democratic movements and institutions in all countries and building democratic states in accordance with its concept of "democracy of change." In their opinion, the activities of the UN are simply irreplaceable in such states as Burma, Sudan, Iran and North Korea.

It is worth noting that the Bush administration, in its approach, left to the United Nations the solution of problems mainly of a humanitarian, social and economic nature - such as the fight against hunger, poverty, illiteracy, infectious diseases, the elimination of the consequences of natural disasters, and the solution of sustainable development issues. The United States still retains the primary right to resolve issues of a military-political nature, arguing that "the success of a multilateral approach is measured not by following the process, but by achieving results" and that "it is important to consider the UN and other multilateral institutions as one option out of many." This approach prioritizes the achievement of the United States' own foreign policy goals to the detriment of the principles and norms of international law.