During the Second World War, most of the countries of Western and Eastern Europe were destroyed. After the end of the global conflict, economic chaos, hunger and poverty reigned throughout the world. In addition to economic recovery, the main post-war problems included: the eradication of Nazism, the restoration of interstate trade and economic ties, the organization of international cooperation, the division of spheres of influence in Europe.
Post-war world order
To decide the further policy towards defeated Germany and its allies, the final destruction of the remnants of Nazism and fascism, and the definition of the post-war world order, the Berlin (Potsdam) Conference was convened, which lasted from July 17 to August 2, 1945.
The meeting was attended by representatives of the three most influential powers of the post-war period: the Soviet Union, Great Britain and the United States of America. Following the results of the Potsdam Conference, the following decisions were made with regard to Germany:
Moreover, Soviet Union confirmed his obligations given to him at the Yalta Conference - to start a war with Japan no less than 90 days after the defeat of Germany. On August 9, 1945, he fulfilled his obligations. On the same day, the United States of America dropped a nuclear bomb on the Japanese city of Nagasaki. On September 2, 1945, Japan surrendered. But all the main decisions on the post-war structure of the world had already been taken at the Yalta and Potsdam conferences, which took place even before the end of World War II.
Causes and the beginning of the Cold War
With the end of World War II, the strongest aggressive powers: Germany, Italy, Japan, lost their influence on the international arena. Among the victorious states that are part of the Anti-Hitler Coalition, two new global leaders emerged - the USSR and the USA. The emergence of a bipolar world, a world dominated by two powerful superpowers, contributed to the exacerbation of contradictions between them, the beginning of the Cold War.
If during the Second World War, the USSR and the United States forgot about many disagreements, for the sake of conducting coordinated military actions, then after its end, the rivalry between the powers intensified. The United States has been committed to democratic change around the world. The Americans defended capitalist values: the protection of private property, freedom of entrepreneurial activity, the predominance of commodity-money relations. The USSR adhered to the course of building socialism throughout the world, which provided for: the introduction of collective property, restriction or complete ban on entrepreneurship, equal distribution of income for all categories of the population.
The sharp contradictions between the Soviet Union and the United States regarding the post-war world order laid the foundations for a start. cold war:
Thus, shortly after the end of hostilities, in 1946, the Cold War began between the USSR and the United States.
We memorize new words!
Cold war is a hostile policy of two opposing powers (political alliances.), which is limited to political, ideological and economic confrontation without direct military action against each other.
The Cold War officially began on March 5, 1946, with Churchill's speech at Fulton. He declared that the United States is the most powerful world power, which, together with Britain and Canada, must resist the spread of socialism throughout the world. Churchill noted that most of the countries of Eastern Europe were under the control of the Soviet government, in which the communists received absolute power and created real police states there. The essence of Churchill's speech at Fulton boiled down to a complete rupture of relations with the Soviet Union, which, in response to such an official statement, took a similar position.
The folding of the socialist bloc
In the post-war years, European countries were forced to make choices about their future state development... They had two paths: to accept the American model of a democratic state, or to follow the Soviet model and create a socialist society.
In 1946-1948. a struggle unfolded for the establishment of a democratic and communist regime in Europe. Most of the countries of Eastern Europe opted for the Soviet Union. In Hungary, Albania, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Yugoslavia, Romania and Bulgaria by 1947-1950. the communist regime was established. In October 1049, with the victory of the revolution, China was added to the world socialist camp.
In these states, transformations were carried out, following the example of the USSR:
- Industrialization is a process of accelerated industrial development. In some countries, the industrial sector had to be created practically from scratch, as it was completely destroyed during the war years. In other states, the reconstruction of industry was required, for which no less material and human resources were needed.
- Nationalization - transfer of transport, banks, large industrial enterprises the property of the state.
- Cooperation Agriculture- the destruction of private landowners' holdings, the transfer of land to state, collective peasant ownership.
The influence of the USSR on Eastern Europe was also manifested in the field of culture. In the states of the socialist bloc, reforms were carried out to introduce universal free primary education, many universities were opened, and scientific centers were built. Much attention was paid to communist ideology, which penetrated the sphere of art, education, sports.
During the establishment of communist regimes in the countries of Eastern Europe, part of the population supported the ongoing transformation, but there were also groups that resisted innovations. So in 1948-1949. Yugoslavia broke off relations with the Soviet Union, chose its own path of political and economic development.
Capitalist bloc of states
While Eastern Europe followed the example of the Soviet Union, most Western European states chose the path of democratization following the example of the United States. They did not take the US side by accident; this was largely due to the Marshall economic plan developed by the United States of America.
We memorize new words!
Marshall plan is an American political and economic program designed to help post-war Europe. The organization of economic aid to the countries of Western Europe became a tool for expelling the communists from the governments. 17 European countries accepted the US economic aid, for the provision of which they completely removed the communists from power and chose the democratic path of state development.
The main funds under the Marshall plan were sent to Great Britain, France, Holland, West Germany, Italy. These countries have chosen the capitalist path of development, in which there is both private and state property, the state regulates free market relations.
After rebuilding their economies with the help of the Marshall Plan, the capitalist countries of Western Europe followed the path of economic integration. More than 20 states have lowered customs duties for each other, signed a number of agreements on economic and industrial cooperation.
NATO and ATS
The rivalry between the USSR and the USA was manifested not only in the confrontation between ideologies and socio-political systems. In anticipation of a possible military conflict, the powers formed military-political blocs, built up all kinds of weapons.
In 1949, at the initiative of the United States of America, a military-political bloc - NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) was formed. Initially, it included 10 states of Western Europe, the USA and Canada. This alliance provided for a system of measures of collective protection against possible military aggression, set itself the goal of protecting Europe from Soviet influence.
To counterbalance NATO, the creation of the Warsaw Pact Organization (Warsaw Pact Organization) under the leadership of the Soviet Union followed in 1955. The ATS included Poland, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Romania and other states of South-Eastern Europe.
Thus, the confrontation between the two superpowers finally led to the split of Europe and the whole world.
Dictionary
1. Spheres of influence are the territories of a certain state or even a whole group of states under economic and political influence another country.
2. Annexation is the forcible annexation of one state or part of its territories to another.
3. Occupation is the violent occupation of foreign territories.
4. Cartel is a form of business combination, in which each company that is part of the cartel does not lose its financial and production independence.
5. Socialism is a socio-economic system in which the state establishes complete control over the economy, the means of production and the distribution of resources. Collective forms of ownership prevail in society, and entrepreneurial activity is limited or completely prohibited.
6. Ideology is a system of ideas, views, interests that a social group adheres to.
7. Democratic values - ideas of freedom, equality, justice, private property, personal inviolability of citizens.
8. The police state is symbol state structure, in which the government tightly controls public, political and economic life.
9. Integration is the process of uniting disparate parts into a single whole, rallying states, social groups, people.
10. Customs duty is a fee levied for the transportation of goods across state borders.
The post-war world has not become more durable. In a short time, relations between the USSR and its allies in the anti-Hitler coalition deteriorated significantly. To characterize them, the metaphor began to be used more and more. "coldnaya war ", which appeared for the first time on the pages of the English magazine "Tribune" in the fall of 1945 in the international commentary of the famous writer J. Orwell. Later this term was used in the spring of 1946 in one of his public speeches by the prominent American banker and politician B. Baruch. At the end of 1946, the influential American publicist W. Lippmann published a book with the title of these two words.
However, two historical facts are traditionally considered a "declaration" or proclamation of the "cold war": the speech of W. Churchill (March 1946) in Fulton (Missouri) in the presence of US President H. Truman about the "iron curtain" and the Soviet threat, and the promulgation of the "Truman Doctrine" (March 1947) - an American foreign policy concept that proclaimed the main task facing the United States is to oppose and "contain" communism. The post-war world split into two antagonistic blocs, and the Cold War entered its active phase in the summer of 1947, ultimately leading to the formation of opposing military-political blocs.
Each side made its own specific contribution to the post-war confrontation. The West was frightened by the increased military power of the Soviet Union, the unpredictability of Stalin's actions, and the increasingly persistent promotion of communist influence in the countries of Eastern Europe and Asia. During 1945-1948. a number of Eastern European countries (Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, the eastern part of dismembered Germany) were drawn into the orbit of Soviet influence, in which, under pressure from the USSR, coalition parties were formed at first, with the determining influence of communist parties, and then purely communist in composition of the government.
At the end of September 1947, under pressure from the Stalinist leadership of representatives of the six Communist Parties of Eastern Europe and the two largest Western European Communist Parties (France and Italy), the Information Bureau of Communist and Workers' Parties (Cominformburo) was created with headquarters in Belgrade. This body helped to increase the pressure of the USSR on the countries of the so-called "people's democracy" along with the presence on the territory of some of these countries Soviet troops and agreements of friendship, cooperation and mutual assistance concluded with them. Created in 1949, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) with headquarters in Moscow tied the countries of "people's democracies" even more economically to the USSR, since the latter were forced, according to the Soviet scenario, to carry out all the necessary transformations in culture, agriculture and industry, relying solely on the Soviet experience, which was not entirely positive.
In Asia, North Vietnam was drawn into the USSR's orbit of influence during the period under review, North Korea and China, after the peoples of these countries were able to win victory in the communist-led national liberation wars.
The influence of the USSR on the domestic and foreign policy of the Eastern European countries, despite all the efforts made by Stalin, was not unconditional. Not all communist leaders here have become obedient puppets. The independence and certain ambition of the leader of the Yugoslav communists I. Tito, his desire to create a Balkan federation with the dominant role of Yugoslavia aroused dissatisfaction and suspicion of J. V. Stalin. In 1948, the Soviet-Yugoslav crisis arose and soon sharply escalated, leading to the condemnation of the actions of the Yugoslav leaders by the Communist Information Bureau. Despite this, the Yugoslav communists retained the unity of their ranks and followed I. Tito. Economic relations with the USSR and Eastern European countries were severed. Yugoslavia found itself in an economic blockade and was forced to turn to capitalist countries for help. The pinnacle of the Soviet-Yugoslav confrontation was the rupture of diplomatic relations between the two countries on October 25, 1949. active participation Soviet secret services two waves of purges of communists accused of "titoism". In the period 1948-1949. were repressed in Poland - V. Gomulka, M. Spykhalsky, 3. Klish-ko; in Hungary L. Raik and J. Kadar (the first was executed, the second was sentenced to life imprisonment), in Bulgaria T. Kostov was executed, in Albania - K. Dzodze and many others. In 1950-1951. practically in all Eastern European countries there have been trials against "Yugoslav spies". One of the most recent was the trial in Prague in November 1952 against the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia R. Slansky and thirteen prominent Czechoslovak communists, the vast majority of them executed after the end of the trial. Demonstrative political processes, as at one time the same kind of "events" that took place in the late 1930s. in the USSR, should have scared all those dissatisfied with the policy pursued by the Soviet Union in relation to the countries of "people's democracy" and consolidated the only path already paved by the USSR to the so-called. "Socialism".
Despite the rather serious influence of the communists in a number of Western European countries (in the first post-war years, their representatives were part of the governments of France, Italy, etc.), the authority of the Western European Communist Parties declined in Europe after the adoption of the Marshall Plan, named after the US Secretary of State J. Marshall - one of the "fathers" of the idea of American economic assistance to the post-war reconstruction of Europe. The Soviet government not only itself refused to participate in this plan, but also influenced the corresponding decisions of the Eastern European countries, including Czechoslovakia and Poland, which initially managed to express their readiness to participate in it.
After that, 16 Western European countries became participants in the Marshall Plan. The division of Europe into two hostile camps completed the creation in April 1949 of the North Atlantic Pact (NATO), which by 1953 united 14 European states under the auspices of the United States. The creation of this military-political bloc was largely facilitated by the events associated with the Soviet blockade of West Berlin in the summer of 1948. OPTA was forced to organize an "air bridge", which supplied the city for about a year. Only in May 1949 the Soviet blockade was lifted. However, the actions of the West and the intransigence of the USSR ultimately led to the creation in 1949 of two countries on German soil: on May 23, the Federal Republic of Germany and on October 7, the German Democratic Republic.
Late 1940s - early 1950s were the culmination of the Cold War. In September 1949, the USSR tested the first Soviet atomic bomb, the creation of which is associated with the name of the outstanding Soviet scientist IV Kurchatov. The war of North Korea against the pro-American regime of South Korea (1950-1953), unleashed with the direct consent of Stalin, became a serious international problem for the USSR. It has cost the lives of several million Koreans, Chinese and other peoples in the largest conflict since World War II. The issue of the FRG's integration into the Western political system and its cooperation with NATO presented an enormous difficulty.
The death of JV Stalin, which occurred at the height of the Cold War, contributed to a decrease in tension in international relations, although it did not remove the question of the further continuation of the struggle between the United States and its allies, on the one hand, and the USSR, the vanguard of the so-called commonwealth. the "socialist" states of Europe and Asia - on the other hand, for world domination.
Check yourself
The division of Germany into two states took place: 1) in 1945; 2) in 1948; 3) in 1949; 4) in 1953?
Which of the named writers was especially harshly criticized by the authorities in 1946-1953: 1) A. Akhmatova; 2) M. Sholokhov; 3) M. Zoshchenko; 4) K. Simonov?
Which of the named events, phenomena belong to the concept of "cold war": 1) the signing of the Anti-Comintern Pact; 2) political confrontation between the USSR and the USA; 3) the Soviet-Yugoslav conflict of 1948-1953; 4) the Korean War 1950-1953?
What are the main political repressive campaigns of the post-war period: 1) "the case of the Industrial Party"; 2) the "Leningrad affair"; 3) "the Tukhachevsky process"; 4) "the doctors' case".
1. Changes in international relations in the post-war period. The beginning of the cold war.
2. Formation of a socialist bloc in Eastern Europe. The beginning of the fall of the colonial system.
The second World War led to serious changes in the balance of power in the international arena. After the defeat, Germany, Italy and Japan temporarily dropped out of the ranks of the great powers and lost their colonies. France and even Great Britain weakened significantly. On the other hand, the United States of America emerged from the war strengthened. Far ahead of all other countries in the field of economics, they turned into a gigantic "superpower" that took the main place in the capitalist world.
The other superpower was the Soviet Union. Despite heavy losses, the victory of the USSR in the war, its enormous economic potential, the presence of a powerful army, the formation of a block of people's democratic states under the leadership of the USSR, turned the Soviet Union into the greatest power in the world. The international prestige of the USSR has grown significantly. Without his participation, not a single serious issue of world politics was now resolved. The confrontation between the "superpowers" of the USA and the USSR and, in connection with this, the formation of a "bipolar world" left a deep imprint on the entire post-war history.
After the Second World War, the unity of the victorious countries could not last long. The USSR, on the one hand, and the USA, Great Britain and France on the other, represented different social systems. The Soviet Union is socialist, and its former allies are capitalist. Both sides sought to expand the territory in which it was their social order that was prevalent. The USSR sought to gain access to resources that were previously controlled by capitalist countries. Pro-communist and pro-Soviet guerrilla movements deployed in Greece, Iran, China, Vietnam and other countries. The United States and its allies sought to maintain their dominance in Western Europe, Asia, Africa, and Latin America. The inhabitants of Europe and Asia, devastated by the war, were very interested in the experience of rapid industrial construction in the USSR, millions of people hoped that replacing the capitalist system, which was going through difficult times, with a socialist one, could quickly overcome the devastation.
The uneasy relationship between former countries allies were called "cold war". In general, this term denotes a state of military-political, economic and ideological confrontation between states and groups of states, in which an arms race is underway, economic pressure measures are applied (embargo, economic blockade, etc.), and strategic military bridgeheads and bases are being organized. The Cold War began shortly after World War II and ended in the early 1990s. mainly in connection with democratic transformations in many countries of the former socialist system.
The Cold War caused a split of the world into two camps, gravitating towards the USSR and the USA. The conflict between the USSR and the former allies took place gradually. The first step in this direction was the Fulton Speech. On March 5, 1946, speaking in the presence of US President H. Truman in Fulton, W. Churchill accused the USSR of deploying world expansion, of attacking the territory of the "free world", that is, that part of the planet that was controlled by capitalist countries. Churchill called on the "Anglo-Saxon world", namely the United States, Great Britain and their allies, to repulse the Soviet Union. His words about the division of Europe by the "iron curtain" became winged. The Fulton speech was a kind of declaration of the Cold War.
In 1946-1947. The Soviet Union increased pressure on Greece and Turkey. There was a civil war in Greece, and the USSR demanded that Turkey provide territory for military base in the Mediterranean. Under these conditions, US President Harry Truman announced his readiness to "contain" the USSR throughout the world. This position was called the "Truman Doctrine" and meant the end of cooperation between the victors of fascism.
Harry Truman, 33rd President of the United States
However, the Cold War front did not run between countries, but within them. About a third of the population of France and Italy supported the Communist Party. In a number of Western European states, socialists and communists were part of governments. In 1947, the United States put forward the Marshall Plan to provide European countries with material assistance. Its main goal was to improve heavy economic situation post-war Europe, in order to prevent the coming to power of the left forces and the transition of European countries to the camp of socialism. In this regard, the Marshall Plan is closely related to the "Truman Doctrine" aimed at countering the expansion of the USSR's zone of influence in the world. The main provisions of the plan were put forward by US Secretary of State George Marshall on June 5, 1947, at a speech at Harvard University. Its goal was to provide economic assistance to war-ravaged Europe. The American side did not specify which countries can count on financial support. At the same time, George Marshall was well aware that the US Congress would not support the aid program, one of the recipients of which would be the Soviet Union.
At a conference in Paris in July 1945, the USSR refused to take part in the Marshal's plan. The Soviet leadership believed that with its help the United States would gain control over the economies of countries to which it would provide financial support. Together with the Soviet Union, the young socialist states of Eastern Europe did not join the plan.
The Marshall Plan began to be implemented in April 1948, when the United States entered into force a law on a four-year program of "foreign aid", providing for the provision of aid to Western European countries on the basis of bilateral agreements. The participating countries pledged to promote free enterprise, encourage private American investment, cooperate in lowering customs tariffs, supply some scarce goods to the United States, ensure financial stability, create special funds in national currency released as a result of receiving American aid, the spending of which would be controlled by the United States. , submit regular reports on the use of funds received. To control the execution of the Marshall Plan, the Economic Cooperation Administration was created, headed by major American financiers and politicians. Aid was provided from the US federal budget in the form of grants and loans. From April 1948 to December 1951, the United States spent about $ 17 billion under the Marshall Plan, with the bulk (about 60%) going to Great Britain, France, Italy and West Germany. On December 30, 1951, the Marshall Plan formally ended and was replaced by the Mutual Security Act, which provided for the simultaneous provision of military and economic assistance.
Countries receiving aid under the Marshall plan
(the height of the red bar corresponds to the relative size of the aid)
During the implementation of the Marshall Plan, all primary and secondary goals were achieved. The United States and Canada received an excellent market for surplus products, the economies of Western European countries were restored, backward industries were modernized, the total level of GDP in 1947-1951 showed an increase of almost 33%, industry and agriculture exceeded the pre-war level by 40 and 11%, respectively. In addition, it consolidated the split of Europe into regimes that adopted American terms and included in the sphere of influence of the USSR.
One of the symbols of a divided Europe was the fate of Germany. In 1945, its territory was occupied by the allied forces. Measures were taken to demilitarize the German economy and democratize society. The USSR and the Western powers saw the future fate of Germany differently. As a result, on May 23, 1949, in the US-controlled. Great Britain and France territory was formed by the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG). In response, on October 7, 1949, from the East German regions, the German Democratic Republic (GDR) was formed, which entered the sphere of influence of the USSR. The split of Germany has become one of the most difficult international issues in post-war history.
The Cold War demanded the strengthening of the communist movement, into which new people, often democratically inclined, came during the war. In 1947, the largest European communist parties created the Cominform instead of the Comintern, which was supposed to coordinate the activities of the communists in different countries... However, Cominform was used to condemn the attempts of the Eastern European communist regimes to seek their own variants of development. This policy led, in particular, to the Soviet-Yugoslav conflict. In 1948, repressive campaigns were launched in the USSR against everyone who might have cultural contacts with the outside world. However, repressions directed against dissidents took place in Western countries, primarily in the United States. These events became known as the "witch hunt".
The rivalry between the USSR and the United States inevitably led to the buildup of armaments by both blocs - socialist and capitalist. The goal of the opponents was to achieve superiority, especially in the field of atomic weapons, as well as in their means of delivery. Soon, in addition to bombers, missiles became such means. The nuclear missile arms race has begun. Initially, the USA was the leader in the race. They had atomic weapons, first tested back in August 1945 during the bombing of the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The plans of the American General Staff provided for the use of atomic weapons against the USSR and its allies in the event of a military conflict.
The Soviet military-industrial complex made every effort to create its own atomic bomb. Soviet scientists worked on this task together with intelligence services. Some engineering solutions were obtained through intelligence channels from secret American institutions, but this data could not have been used if Soviet scientists had not come close to creating atomic weapons on their own. Thus, the creation of new weapons in the USSR was a matter of time, which we did not have at that time.
In 1949, the Soviet Union tested its own atomic bomb. This news shocked the American leadership. The presence of a bomb in the USSR deterred the United States from using atomic weapons in Korea, although such a possibility was discussed by the high-ranking American military. In 1953, the USSR tested a thermonuclear bomb. From that time, the United States until the 1960s. overtook our country only in the number of nuclear weapons and their delivery vehicles, but not qualitatively. The USSR had almost any weapon that the United States possessed.
In April 1949, the United States, Canada and most Western European countries formed a military alliance - the North Atlantic Bloc (NATO). In accordance with the obligations assumed, each of the countries participating in this pact pledged to provide immediate assistance, including the use of armed forces, in the event of an armed attack on one or more of them in Europe, or North America... The USSR and the countries of Eastern Europe in 1955 responded to this by creating their own military alliance - the Warsaw Pact Organization. Thus, the compromise between the two political systems resulting from the war against fascism was finally destroyed.
The states of Europe included
to NATO (marked in blue) and ATS (red)
The people's democratic revolutions in a number of European countries: Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Asia: Vietnam, China, Korea, and somewhat earlier - the revolution in Mongolia became a significant historical event in the post-war period. To a large extent, the political orientation in these countries was determined under the influence of the presence of Soviet troops on the territory of most of them, carrying out a liberation mission during the Second World War. This also largely contributed to the fact that in most countries cardinal transformations began in the political, socio-economic and other spheres in accordance with the Stalinist model.
The departure of the socialist model beyond the framework of one country and its spread to South-Eastern Europe and Asia laid the foundations for the emergence of a community of countries, which was called the "world socialist system". In 1959 Cuba, and in 1975 Laos entered orbit new system, which existed for over 40 years. In the late 80s. the world socialist system included 15 states, occupying 26.2% of the territory the globe and accounting for 32.3% of the world's population. Taking into account even just these quantitative indicators, one can speak of the world socialist system as an essential factor in post-war international life.
As noted above, an important prerequisite for the formation of the world socialist system was the liberation mission Soviet army in the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe. Today there are rather heated discussions on this issue. A significant part of researchers are inclined to believe that in 1944-1947. there were no people's democratic revolutions in the countries of this region, and the Soviet Union imposed the Stalinist model on the liberated peoples social development... With this point of view, one can only partially agree, since it should be borne in mind that in 1945-1946. in these countries, broad democratic transformations were carried out, and bourgeois-democratic forms of statehood were often restored. This is evidenced, in particular, by: the bourgeois orientation of agrarian reforms in the absence of nationalization of the land, the preservation of the private sector in small and medium-sized industry, retail and the service sector, finally, the presence of a multi-party system, including highest level authorities. If in Bulgaria and Yugoslavia, immediately after the liberation, a course of socialist transformations was taken, in the rest of the countries of South-Eastern Europe the new course began to be carried out from the moment when the essentially undivided power of the national communist parties was established, as was the case in Czechoslovakia (February 1948). Romania (December 1947), Hungary (autumn 1947), Albania (February 1946), East Germany (October 1949), Poland (January 1947).
The year 1949 can be considered a kind of pause that drew a line under the prehistory of the world socialist system, and the 1950s could be singled out as a relatively independent stage in the forced creation of a “new” society, modeled on the USSR. This is a comprehensive nationalization of industrial sectors of the economy, compulsory cooperation, and in essence the nationalization of the agricultural sector, the ousting of private capital from the sphere of finance, trade, the establishment of total control of the state, the supreme bodies of the ruling party over social life, in the field of spiritual culture, etc.
However, there was another model of socialist construction, which was carried out in those years in Yugoslavia - the model of self-governing socialism . She assumed in general terms the following: economic freedom labor collectives within enterprises, their activities based on cost accounting with an indicative type of state planning; refusal of compulsory cooperation in agriculture, fairly widespread use of commodity-money relations, etc., but subject to the preservation of the monopoly of the Communist Party in certain spheres of political and public life.
The departure of the Yugoslav leadership from the "universal" Stalinist construction scheme was the reason for its practical isolation for a number of years from the USSR and its allies. Only after the condemnation of Stalinism at the XX Congress of the CPSU, only in 1955, the relations of the socialist countries with Yugoslavia began to gradually normalize.
Josip Broz Tito, leader of post-war Yugoslavia
An important milestone in the history of the formation of the world socialist system can be considered the creation of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) in January 1949. The CMEA goal was declared to promote further deepening and improvement of cooperation and development, integration of the socialist economy, planned development by combining and coordinating the efforts of the member countries of the Council. national economy, acceleration of economic and technical progress. It was supposed, by increasing the level of industrialization of countries with less developed industry, to achieve a continuous increase in labor productivity, a gradual convergence and equalization of levels of economic development and a steady rise in the welfare of the population of the CMEA member countries.
CMEA building in Moscow
As a result of the reforms carried out and with the active participation of the CMEA, by the mid-1950s, the Eastern European countries had achieved significant success in post-war economic recovery. An impressive breakthrough was made in building up economic potential and modernization social structure... On a regional scale, the transition from an agrarian to an agrarian-industrial type of society was completed. However, the rapid growth in production was accompanied by an increase in sectoral imbalances. The created economic mechanism was largely artificial, not taking into account regional and national specifics. Economic growth was carried out on an extensive basis, due to the increasing involvement of labor, energy, and raw materials. A "mobilization" system has been formed economic relations, in which a vertical command-administrative structure replaced the action of horizontal market ties. Its inevitable product was the bureaucratization of economic management.
Nevertheless, the socialist countries of Europe remained a relatively dynamically developing part of the world socialist system. At its other pole were Mongolia, China, North Korea, Vietnam. These countries most consistently used the Stalinist model of building socialism, namely: within the framework of a rigid one-party system, they decisively eradicated elements of market, private property relations.
Mongolia was the first to take this path. In 1921, the power of the people's government was proclaimed, and in 1924 - the People's Republic. Transformations began in the country under the strong influence of the northern neighbor of the USSR. By the end of the 40s. In Mongolia, there was a process of moving away from the primitive nomadic way of life through the construction of mainly large enterprises in the mining industry, the spread of agricultural farms. Since 1948, the country has embarked on the accelerated construction of the foundations of socialism on the model of the USSR, copying its experience. The ruling party set the task of transforming Mongolia into an agrarian-industrial country, regardless of its peculiarities, essentially different from the USSR civilizational base, religious traditions, etc.
China remains the largest socialist country in Asia to this day. After the victory of the revolution, the defeat of the army of Chiang Kai-shek (1887-1975) on October 1, 1949. the People's Republic of China (PRC) was proclaimed. Under the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party and with great help from the USSR, the country began to restore the national economy. At the same time, China most consistently used the Stalinist model of transformations. And after the XX Congress of the CPSU, which condemned some of the vices of Stalinism, China opposed itself to the new course of the Soviet Union, turning into the arena of an unprecedented experiment called the Great Leap Forward. The concept of the accelerated construction of socialism by Mao Zedong (1893-1976) was essentially a repetition of the Stalinist experiment, but in an even harsher form. The super task was to strive to catch up and overtake the USSR by drastically breaking social relations, using the labor enthusiasm of the population, barracks' forms of work and life, military discipline at all levels social relations and so on. As a result, already at the end of the 50s, the country's population began to experience hunger. This caused ferment in society and among the party leadership. Mao and his supporters responded with the Cultural Revolution. This was the name of the large-scale campaign of repression against dissidents, which stretched out until the death of Mao. Until that moment, the PRC, being considered a socialist country, nevertheless was, as it were, outside the borders of the world socialist system, as evidenced by, in particular, even its armed clashes with the USSR in the late 60s.
In addition to China, such Asian states as Vietnam and North Korea entered the socialist camp. The Communist Party was the most authoritative force leading the struggle for Vietnam's independence. Its leader Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969) headed in September 1945 the interim government of the proclaimed Democratic Republic of Vietnam. These circumstances determined the Marxist-socialist direction of the subsequent course of the state. It was carried out in the context of an anti-colonial war, first with France (1946-1954), and then with the United States (1965-1973) and the struggle for reunification with the south of the country until 1975. Thus, the construction of the foundations of socialism for a long time proceeded under military conditions, which had a considerable influence on the features of the reforms.
Countries of the world in 1959
A similar picture was observed in Korea, which gained independence from Japan in 1945 and was divided into two parts in 1948. North Korea was in the zone of influence of the USSR, and South Korea- USA. In North Korea (DPRK), the dictatorial regime of Kim Il Sung (1912-1994) was established, which carried out the construction of a barracks society, closed from the outside world, based on the most severe dictatorship of one person, total nationalization of property, everyday life, etc. Nevertheless, the DPRK managed to reach in the 50s. certain positive results in economic construction thanks to the development of the foundations of the industry laid down by the Japanese conquerors and a high work culture combined with the most severe industrial discipline.
In the late 50s. Cuba joined the camp of socialist states. In January 1959, an anti-colonial revolution took place there. The hostile US policy towards the young republic and the decisive support for it by the Soviet Union determined the socialist orientation of the country's leadership.
In the late 50s, 60s, 70s. most of the socialist countries have managed to achieve certain positive results in the development of the national economy, ensuring the growth living standards population. However, during this period, negative tendencies were also clearly identified, primarily in the economic sphere. The development model, which had become entrenched in all countries of the world socialist system, without exception, fettered the initiative of economic entities and did not allow an adequate response to new phenomena and trends in the world economic process. This became especially evident in connection with the beginning in the 50s. scientific and technological revolution. As its development proceeded, the countries of the socialist camp lagged more and more behind the advanced capitalist powers in terms of the rate of introduction of scientific and technological achievements into production, mainly in the field of electronic computers, energy and resource-saving industries and technologies. Attempts to partially reform this model, undertaken at that time, did not yield positive results. The reason for the failure of the reforms was the strong resistance of the party and state nomenklatura to them, which basically determined the extreme inconsistency and, as a result, the failure of the reform process.
The victory of the democratic forces over fascism in World War II and the growing influence of the USSR created favorable conditions for the fall of the colonial system. The question of the system of international trusteeship (in other words, the colonial problem), in accordance with the agreement of the heads of government of England, the USSR and the United States, was included in the agenda of the conference in San Francisco, which established the UN in 1945. Soviet representatives persistently advocated the principle of independence for the colonial peoples, their opponents, and above all the British, who represented the largest colonial empire at that time, strove for the UN charter to speak only of movement "towards self-government." As a result, a formula was adopted that was close to the one proposed by the Soviet delegation: the UN trusteeship system should lead the trust territories towards "self-government and independence."
Over the next ten years, more than 1.2 billion people were freed from colonial and semi-colonial dependence. 15 sovereign states appeared on the world map, in which more than 4/5 of the population of the former colonial possessions lived. The largest British colonies, India (1947) and Ceylon (1948), achieved liberation, the territories of France under the mandate of Syria and Lebanon (1943, withdrawal of troops - 1946), Vietnam, which won independence from France during the eight-year war (1945-1954), was liberated from Japanese colonial dependence. ), defeated revolutions of a socialist nature in North Korea and China.
Since the mid-50s. the collapse of the colonial system in its classical forms of direct subordination and dictate began. In 1960, the UN General Assembly, on the initiative of the USSR, adopted the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to the Former Colonial Countries.
By the end of World War II, about 200 million people lived in 55 territories of the African continent and a number of adjacent islands. Egypt, Ethiopia, Liberia and the dominion of Great Britain - the Union of South Africa, which had their own governments and administrations, were considered formally independent. A huge part of the territories of Africa was divided between England, France, Belgium, Portugal, Spain, Italy. 1960 went down in history as the "Year of Africa". Then the independence of 17 countries of the central and western part of the continent was proclaimed. In general, the process of liberation of Africa was completed by 1975. By this time, around the world, 3.7% of the world's population lived in the surviving colonies in an area that was less than 1% of the world's area.
In total, after the Second World War, more than 2 billion people were freed from the colonial yoke. The collapse of the colonial system is undoubtedly a progressive phenomenon in modern history mankind, since for a huge mass of the planet's population the possibilities of independent choice of the path, national self-expression, access to the achievements of civilization have opened up.
A country's economy
Political system
Educating spirituality
Post-war world structure
part of East Prussia Klaipeda region Transcarpathian Ukraine
Has changed. Defeated and lost the role of great powers of the aggressor countries - Germany and Japan, much . In the same time the influence of the USA has grown,
Led by the USSR.
The war put gained independence
Sharp the influence of the communists grew
During the world war 1945 year in San Francisco
cold war Dulles
The backbone of the confrontation USSR and USA Churchill 1946 year
USA and USSR.
In Western Europe in 1949,
Soviet Union also conducts confrontation politics
Asian civil war in china
The final disintegration of the "world
European countries were invited
V
A country's economy
damage
In March 1946 g. The Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted fourth five-year plan
The reform allowed abolish the card system government loans country.
well
Under construction industrial giants
Created quickly Atomic industry... V 1948 g. in the Urals entered service Combine "Mayak" nuclear center .
Unfolded arms race
Difficult the situation was in agriculture
By the end of the fourth five-year plan
increased purchase prices reduced tax on collective farmers
February-March
Political system
These ideas were laid down in
In countries capitalist bloc the company unfolded anti-Sovietism
50s McCarthy period
The apogee of McCarthyism was
Since the beginning of the cold war the internal policy of the USSR was sharply toughened. The situation in a "military camp", a "besieged fortress" required, along with the struggle against an external enemy, the presence of an "internal enemy", an "agent of world imperialism."
In the second half of the 40s. repression against enemies resumed Soviet power. The largest was “ Leningrad affair "(1948 g.), when such prominent figures as the chairman of the State Planning Committee N. Voznesensky, the secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU A. Kuznetsov, the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the RSFSR M. Rodionov, the head of the Leningrad party organization P. Popkov, and others were arrested and secretly shot.
When after the war it was created the state of Israel, there mass migration of Jews from all countries of the world began. In 1948, arrests of representatives of the Jewish intelligentsia began in the USSR, the fight against "rootless cosmopolitanism". In January 1953 a group of doctors at the Kremlin hospital, Jews by nationality, were accused of having killed the secretaries of the Central Committee Zhdanov and Shcherbakov through improper treatment and plotting the assassination of Stalin. These doctors allegedly acted on instructions from international Zionist organizations.
The post-war repressions did not reach the scale of the 30s, there were no high-profile show trials, but they were wide enough. It should be borne in mind that only in national formations from among the peoples of the USSR during the war years, from 1.2 to 1.6 million people fought on the side of Nazi Germany. So that a large number of repressed for cooperation with the enemy - is understandable. Were former prisoners of war repressed(by order of the Commander-in-Chief of Stalin, all captured fell into the category of traitors to the Motherland). The war and the difficult post-war situation in the country also led to a colossal the rise in criminality... In general, by January 1953 there were 2,468,543 prisoners in the Gulag.
After the death of I. Stalin, a collective leadership was created country and party. G. Malenkov became the Chairman of the Council of Ministers, his deputies L. Beria, V. Molotov, N. Bulganin, L. Kaganovich. K. Voroshilo became the Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR in, and post Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee was taken over by N.S. Khrushchev... A softening of domestic policy began. Immediately, on April 4, 1953, the rehabilitation in the "case of doctors". People from camps and exiles began to return.
In July The 1953 plenum of the Central Committee discussed the "Beria case". L. Beria led the security and internal affairs bodies, was the direct leader of the repressions. On charges of "collaboration with imperialist intelligence services" and "conspiracy to restore the rule of the bourgeoisie." L. Beria and six of his closest associates were sentenced to death.
After L. Beria was shot, mass rehabilitation of convicts for political crimes. The first timid begins in print criticism of the "personality cult", but the name of I. Stalin has not yet been mentioned. The period begins, which went down in history under the name “ thaws».
Revision of the "Leningrad case"Undermined the position of G. Malenkova... In February 1955 he was dismissed from the post of Chairman of the Council of Ministers, this post was N. Bulganin appointed... This led to a change in the balance of power at the top - to the first positions N.S. Khrushchev.
A country's economy
Political system
Educating spirituality
Post-war world structure
As a result of the second world war the balance of power in the world has changed... Winning countries in the first place Soviet Union, enlarged their territories at the expense of the defeated states. A large part of East Prussia with the city of Konigsberg (now the Kaliningrad region of the Russian Federation), the Lithuanian SSR received the territory Klaipeda region, the territory of the Ukrainian SSR was transferred Transcarpathian Ukraine... On the Far East, in accordance with the agreements reached at the Crimean Conference, the Soviet Union was returned to South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands(including four southern islands that were not previously part of Russia). Increased their territory at the expense of the German lands of Czechoslovakia and Poland.
Has changed the interior of the western world... Defeated and lost the role of great powers of the aggressor countries - Germany and Japan, much weakened the position of England and France... In the same time the influence of the USA has grown, which controlled about 80% of the gold reserves of the capitalist world, they accounted for 46% of world industrial production.
A feature of the post-war period was people's democratic (socialist) revolutions in Eastern Europe and a number of Asian countries who, with the support of the USSR, began building socialism. The world socialist system was formed led by the USSR.
The war put the beginning of the collapse and the colonial system imperialism. As a result of the national liberation movement gained independence such largest countries, how India, Indonesia, Burma, Pakistan, Ceylon, Egypt. A number of them took the path of a socialist orientation. Only post-war decade gained independence 25 states, 1200 million people were freed from colonial dependence.
There has been a shift to the left in the political spectrum of the capitalist countries of Europe. Fascist and radical right parties left the scene... Sharp the influence of the communists grew... 1945-1947 communists were part of the governments of France, Italy, Belgium, Austria, Denmark, Norway, Iceland and Finland.
During the world war formed a single anti-fascist coalition- the union of the great powers - the USSR, the USA, Great Britain and France. The presence of a common enemy helped to overcome the differences between the capitalist countries and socialist Russia, to find compromises. April-June 1945 year in San Francisco constituent conferences of the United Nations that included representatives from 50 countries. The UN Charter reflected the principles of peaceful coexistence of states of different socio-economic systems, the principles of sovereignty and equality of all countries of the world.
However, the Second World War was replaced by “ cold war"- a war without fighting. The term "cold war" was coined by US Secretary of State D.F. Dulles... Its essence is a political, economic, ideological confrontation between the two socio-economic systems of socialism and capitalism, balancing on the brink of war.
The backbone of the confrontation became the relationship between the two superpowers - USSR and USA... It is customary to date the beginning of the Cold War with the speech of W. Churchill in the American city of Fulton in March 1946 year., in which he called on the people of the United States to a joint struggle against Soviet Russia and its agents - the communist parties.
The ideological rationale for the Cold War was the doctrine of US President Truman, put forward by him in 1947 According to the doctrine, the conflict between capitalism and communism is insoluble. The US challenge is to fight communism all over the world, "containment of communism", "pushing of communism into the borders of the USSR." Proclaimed American responsibility for events happening around the world e, which were viewed through the prism opposing capitalism to communism, USA and USSR.
The Soviet Union began to be surrounded a network of American military bases. In 1948, the first bombers with atomic weapons aimed at the USSR were deployed in Great Britain and West Germany. The capitalist countries are starting to create military-political blocs directed against the USSR.
In Western Europe in 1949 NATO created the North Atlantic bloc... It includes: USA, England, France, Italy, Canada, Belgium, Holland, Greece and Turkey. V South-East Asia v 1954 SEATO bloc is created, in 1955 - Baghdad Pact... The military potential of Germany is being restored. V 1949, in violation of the Yalta and Potsdam agreements, from the three zones of occupation - English, American and French - was the Federal Republic of Germany was created, which in the same year entered NATO.
Soviet Union also conducts confrontation politics... In 1945, Stalin demanded the creation of a system of joint defense of the Black Sea straits of the USSR and Turkey, the establishment of joint custody by the allies of the colonial possessions of Italy in Africa (while the USSR was planning to provide a naval base in Libya).
The confrontation between the capitalist and socialist camps is escalating and Asian continent. Since 1946 began civil war in china... The troops of the Kuomintang government of Chiang Kai-shek tried to occupy the territories controlled by the communists. The capitalist countries supported Chiang Kai-shek, and the Soviet Union - the communists, transferring them a significant amount of captured Japanese weapons.
The final disintegration of the "world"Into two warring socio-economic systems is associated with the advancement of 1947 by the United States of the Marshall Plan"(Named after the US Secretary of State) and the sharply negative attitude of the USSR towards him.
European countries were invited aid to rebuild a shattered economy... Loans were given to buy American goods. The Marshall Plan was adopted by 16 states of Western Europe. The political condition for aid was removal of communists from governments... In 1947, the communists were removed from the governments of Western European countries. Help was also offered to Eastern European countries. Poland and Czechoslovakia began negotiations, but, under the influence of the USSR, they refused to help.
As opposed to the bloc of capitalist countries an economic and military-political union of socialist countries began to form... V 1949 the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance was established- the body for economic cooperation of the socialist states; in May 1955 - Warsaw military-political bloc.
After the adoption of the Marshall Plan in Western Europe and the formation of CMEA in Eastern Europe there are two parallel world markets.
A country's economy
The Soviet Union ended the war with huge losses. On the fronts, in the occupied territory, in captivity over 27 million Soviet citizens were killed. 1710 cities, over 70 thousand villages and villages, 32 thousand industrial enterprises were destroyed. Straight damage inflicted by the war exceeded 30% of the national wealth.
In March 1946 g. The Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted fourth five-year plan economic development. It was planned not only to restore the national economy, but also to surpass the pre-war level of industrial production by 48%. It was planned to invest 250 billion rubles in the national economy. (as much as in the three pre-war five-year plans).
During the war, the entire economy was rebuilt on a war footing, the production of consumer goods was actually stopped. The population has accumulated a huge mass of money, not provided with goods. To relieve the pressure of this mass on the market, in 1947, was carried out monetary reform ... The money in the hands of the population was exchanged at a ratio of 10: 1.
The reform allowed abolish the card system introduced during the war. As in the 30s, government loans among the population. These were tough measures, but they allowed improve the financial situation country.
The restoration of the destroyed industry proceeded at a rapid pace.
In 1946, there was a certain decline associated with conversion, and with 1947 a steady rise begins.
V 1948 pre-war industrial production surpassed, and by the end of the five-year plan, it exceeded the 1940 level. The growth was 70%, instead of the planned 48%.
This was achieved through the resumption of production in the territories liberated from the Nazi occupation. The restored factories were equipped with equipment produced in German factories and supplied as reparations. A total of 3,200 enterprises were restored and re-launched in the western regions. They produced peaceful products, while defense enterprises remained where they were evacuated - in the Urals and Siberia.
After the war, the USSR government continued well, begun in the years of the first five-year plans to increase the industrial power of the country, which is the main factor in the existence of the state in conditions of tough confrontation between socialism and capitalism.
Under construction industrial giants: Kaluga Turbine, Minsk Tractor, Ust-Kamenogorsk Lead-Zinc Combine, etc. State reserves at the beginning of 1953 increased in comparison with the pre-war level: non-ferrous metals - 10 times; petroleum products - 3.3 times; coal - 5.1 times.
Republics of the Baltic States, Moldova, western regions of Ukraine and Belarus that became part of the USSR on the eve of the war, are turning from agrarian to industrial.
Created quickly Atomic industry... V 1948 g. in the Urals entered service Combine "Mayak"(Chelyabinsk-40), on it were built the first domestic nuclear reactors- converters for plutonium production. Combine "Mayak" became the first nuclear center country. It was here that the first kilograms of plutonium -239 were obtained, from which the charges of the first atomic bombs... In parallel with the development of the production of atomic weapons, rocket industry development.
Unfolded arms race, the tough confrontation between capitalism and socialism, the restoration of the destroyed national economy of the USSR demanded, above all, colossal funds for the development of the industry, from here, in the post-war years, much less funds were spent on the development of light and food industries - consumer goods production grew slowly, there was a lack of basic necessities.
Difficult the situation was in agriculture... Only 7% of the total amount of appropriations in the fourth five-year plan was allocated for its development. As in the years of the first five-year plans, the brunt of the country's recovery and further industrialization fell on the countryside. The state was forced to develop the industry to withdraw in the form of taxes and compulsory deliveries over 50% of the products of collective and state farms... Purchase prices for agricultural products have not changed since 1928, while prices for industrial products have increased 20 times during this time. In terms of workdays, the collective farmer earned less per year than the worker earned per month.
In the late 40s. household plots were heavily taxed. The peasants began to get rid of their livestock, cut down fruit trees, as they could not afford to pay taxes. The peasants could not leave the village, since they did not have passports. Nevertheless, the rural population under the conditions of the accelerated development of industry was shrinking - peasants were recruited for construction sites, factories, and logging. In 1950, the rural population decreased by half in comparison with 1940.
By the end of the fourth five-year plan in the cities there has been a rise in the living standards of the population. Reduced prices were carried out annually. By 1950, the real wage reached the 1940 level
The restored industry made it possible to obtain funds for the development of agriculture. V 1953 tax reform was carried out and the taxes on personal plots were halved. The tax was levied only on land, not on livestock and trees. In September 1953 the Central Committee plenum dedicated to the development of agriculture was held, after which there were significantly (3-6 times) increased purchase prices for agricultural products and 2.5 times reduced tax on collective farmers... The state reserves of grain have increased fourfold in comparison with the pre-war level.
February-March In 1954, a program for the development of virgin and fallow lands was adopted. More than 500 thousand volunteers (mainly young people) went to Siberia and Kazakhstan to introduce additional land into circulation. In the eastern regions there were over 400 new state farms created... The share of grain harvest on newly reclaimed lands amounted to 27% of the all-Union harvest.
Political system
The Second World War ended with the victory of the United States, England, France, allied with the USSR against the fascist governments of Germany, Italy and Japan. The defeat of fascism created preconditions for a sustainable world order... These ideas were laid down in UN Charter adopted on June 26, 1946 of the year at the San Francisco conference.
However, these ideas were not fully realized. The reasons are in the "cold war", the split of the world into two opposing socio-political camps.
In countries capitalist bloc the company unfolded anti-Sovietism, held under the flag of the fight against the "Soviet military threat", with the USSR's desire to "export the revolution" to other countries of the world... Under the pretext of fighting "subversive communist activities" campaign against communist parties, who were portrayed as "agents of Moscow", "an alien body in the system of Western democracy." V 1947 communists were removed from governments France, Italy and several other countries. In England and the United States, a ban was introduced for communists to occupy positions in the army of the state apparatus, and mass layoffs were carried out. In the FRG, the Communist Party was banned.
The "witch hunt" became especially widespread in the USA in the first half
50s that went down in the history of this country as McCarthy period, named after Republican Senator D. McCarthy from Wisconsin. He was promoted back to the presidency of Democrat Truman. Mr. Truman himself pursued a fairly anti-democratic policy, but the McCarthyists took it to ugly extremes. G. Truman launched a "loyalty test" of civil servants and the McCarthyists passed the Homeland Security Act, which created a special subversive activity control department to identify and register “communist action” organizations with the aim of depriving them of their civil rights. G. Truman gave order to try the leaders of the Communist Party as foreign agents, and the McCarthyists passed the Immigration Restriction Act in 1952, which closed the entry into the country for people who collaborated with leftist organizations. After the Republican victory in the elections in 1952 saw the rise of McCarthyism. At Congress, commissions were created to investigate anti-American activities, to which any citizen could be summoned. On the recommendation of the commission, any worker or employee immediately lost his job.
The apogee of McCarthyism was the 1954 Law on Control of the Communists. The Communist Party was deprived of all rights and guarantees, membership in it was declared a crime and was punishable by a fine of up to 10 thousand dollars and imprisonment up to 5 years. A number of provisions of the law had an anti-union orientation, ranked the trade unions as subversive organizations "into which the communists penetrated."
Expanding boundaries. Victory in World War II brought territorial acquisitions to the USSR, which were of considerable strategic importance. The greatest power in the world largely limited itself to what was forcibly annexed in the pre-war period, but new territories also appeared.Finland transferred the Pechenga region to the USSR, by decision of the Potsdam Conference, part of East Prussia with its capital, Konigsberg, was transferred to the RSFSR. Under treaties with Czechoslovakia, the Transcarpathian Ukraine was annexed to the Ukrainian SSR, an exchange of territories with Poland took place. In 1944 Tuva became part of the Soviet state as an autonomous republic, and in 1946 the border with Afghanistan was finally established. The victory over Japan made it possible to annex the Kuril Islands and Sakhalin, but this was not enshrined in a peace treaty between the states, which today creates certain difficulties between them. Thus, the USSR found itself within the borders that the CIS and the Baltic countries have today.
The lifestyle in the newly annexed territories changed, it acquired all the features Soviet system: the restoration of the economy was accompanied by industrialization and collectivization, the traditional way of life was liquidated, dispossession and cleansing were carried out. All this caused national confrontation, an armed struggle against the Soviet system (especially aggravated in Western Ukraine). And today the complex interweaving of national, ideological and political motives of the confrontation in the 1940s destabilizes relations between fraternal and neighboring peoples.
Relations with the West. The Second World War radically changed the system of international relations. The defeat of fascism and the emergence of new superpowers on the arena - the USSR and the USA - led to the emergence of geopolitical bipolarity in the world. The international situation for many years began to be determined by the confrontation between two systems - capitalist and socialist.
Victory in the ideological confrontation was possible only in the case of reliance on real power, and this power was nuclear weapon... For the USSR, in the second half of the 1940s, the situation was aggravated by the lack of a nuclear potential, despite the fact that developments and research in nuclear power had been going on for a long time. It is known that, guided by this fact, US President G. Truman in 1949 intended to present an ultimatum to the USSR and, if it was not fulfilled, to use 1,300 bombs against 100 cities of the Union. In total, the United States has developed 10 plans for an atomic strike against the USSR. The world was saved from catastrophe only by the appearance of its own nuclear bomb in the USSR, which meant the achievement of parity and the temporary elimination of the deadly threat. Since that time, the confrontation between the leading powers entered an extremely dangerous phase - the redistribution of spheres of influence in the world began to take more and more blatant forms, and both sides strenuously continued the arms race.
However, the USSR has already achieved considerable influence in Eastern Europe, supported the growing anti-colonial liberation movements in Asia, took care of the former colonies of the defeated states, established relations with the new communist China.
Thus, even after the end of World War II, the “battle for Europe” continued - only the participants and methods of the “war” changed. W. Churchill, speaking at Fulton in 1946, called the USSR "an evil empire" and declared that "the iron curtain fell." This event marked the beginning of the "cold war" - the confrontation between the parties at all levels. However, the United States, having changed the principle of "non-participation in wars in peacetime", being the most economically viable state in the world, launched the "Marshall Plan", which provided for the restoration of post-war Europe. Thus, Western Europe and its dependent territories fell into the orbit of US influence. The Soviet Union, realizing the threat of such a policy, opposed the creation of any military and political blocs and spoke in favor of equal bilateral relations between all states. In confirmation of the principle of peaceful coexistence of states with different socio-political systems, an agreement was signed with Finland in 1948.
In 1949, the Berlin Crisis occurred, caused by a conflict in the occupation zones with the Allies in West Berlin. There was no bloodshed, but the Berlin crisis led to the consolidation of anti-Soviet forces and the creation of a military-political NATO bloc, which also included 12 states under the auspices of the United States. The Soviet Union and its allies gradually found themselves surrounded by enemy military bases. Within the countries, the atmosphere of mistrust towards each other grew more and more, cultural contacts were limited, propaganda created a stereotype of a “hostile environment”, a “witch hunt” unfolded in the United States, and another round of purges was planned in the USSR.
Gradually, the cold confrontation between the superpowers spread throughout the world and at any moment could develop into an armed conflict. The first "swallow" was the Korean War in 1950-1953. Intervention essentially in civil war The USSR and the USA showed the fragility of the situation and the insecurity of the “non-aligned” states from the claims of the new masters of the world. In this situation, the policy of the Soviet Union and the United States still retained its imperial features.
Relationship with Eastern Europe... The states of this region found themselves in the sphere of influence of the USSR immediately after the war, since they were liberated by the Red Army, which won the trust of the majority of the population of these countries by a heroic struggle against fascism. In these countries, left-wing forces led by communists (people's democratic regimes) came to power. In accordance with trade agreements, the Soviet Union supplied the Eastern European countries on preferential terms with grain, raw materials for industry, and fertilizers for agriculture. The combination of feelings of genuine sympathy for the socialist system on the part of the population and active support for the new regimes on the part of the USSR led to the international union, which was called the "socialist camp". In Europe, it was Poland. Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany, Romania, Yugoslavia, Albania. In Asia - China, North Korea, North Vietnam.
Comprehensive contacts were developed with partners in the camp: economic and cultural ties were established, experience was exchanged. In 1949, as an alternative to the Marshall Plan, the Soviet side initiated the creation of CMEA - the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance. The USSR, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, and then a number of other countries coordinated their activities through a system of mutual agreements. Along with the indisputable merits of such interaction, there was a phenomenon that even then laid the foundation for the future collapse of this organization: the desire of the USSR leadership to approve the Soviet model of building socialism.
The USSR, regardless of the specifics of individual states, pursued a policy of unification of the socio-political structure, bringing to uniformity all countries that followed the path of socialist development. This led to the emergence of contradictions and conflicts in relations with individual countries. For example, already in March 1948, the leader of Yugoslavia, I. Broz Tito, openly announced a "dead end" in relations with the USSR, which led to a complete diplomatic break. In response to this, an anti-Yugoslav campaign was launched in the socialist countries.
Over the next years, Stalin's harsh dictatorship kept the overall situation under control. But in the same years, the idea of the need for changes in society was more and more clearly formed in the public consciousness.
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