By the middle of the XIX century. Russia's lagging behind the advanced capitalist states in the economic and socio-political spheres was clearly manifested. So main goal domestic policy of the government in the second half of the XIX century. was bringing the economic and socio-political system of Russia in line with the needs of the time while maintaining autocracy. Peasant question since the middle of the XIX century. has become a major problem in Russia. The need to eliminate serfdom was due to a number of reasons: 1. The serf system has outlived itself economically: the landlord economy, based on the labor of serfs, increasingly fell into decay. 2. Serfdom interfered with the industrial modernization of the country, as it prevented the formation of a free labor market, the accumulation of capital. 3. The peasants openly protested against serfdom. 4.Among European states serfdom remained only in Russia, which was a shame for her and relegated the country to the category of backward states. The preparation of the peasant reform was carried out by the Main Committee on Peasant Affairs. On February 19, 1861, the Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom was published. The manifesto provided the peasants with personal freedom and general civil rights. The peasant was freed from the personal guardianship of the landowner, he could own property and make deals. At the same time, the personal freedom of the peasant was limited to the preservation of the community. During the liberation, the peasants were provided with plots of land that were 20% smaller than those plots that they used under serfdom. For the land, the peasants had to pay the landowners a ransom, the value of which was 1.5 times the market value of the land. 80% of the ransom was paid to the landowners by the state. Peasants within 15 years had to pay the debt to the state with interest. The reform of 1861 brought freedom to more than 30 million serfs and contributed to the formation of capitalist relations in the countryside. However, the reform made it possible to preserve landownership and doomed the peasants to lack of land and poverty. Thus, the reform of 1861 did not remove the agrarian question in Russia. The abolition of serfdom in Russia entailed zemstvo, city, judicial, military and other reforms. In 1864, local self-government, the zemstvo, was introduced. Representatives of all estates elected county zemstvo assemblies, which sent deputies to the provincial zemstvo assembly. Zemstvos were in charge of economic issues, schools, and medicine. In 1870, self-government bodies were created in the cities. City voters elected the city duma, which formed the council. In 1864, a judicial reform was carried out. Class, closed court was abolished. More simple cases were referred to magistrates and judicial chambers. The jury decided on the guilt of the defendant. The trial became oral, public, adversarial. In 1863, the university charter was approved, which returned autonomy to universities: the election of rectors and deans was introduced, the university council received the right to independently resolve a number of issues. In 1864, a new provision was introduced on primary public schools, according to which the state, church and society were to be involved in the education of the people. In 1865 preliminary censorship was abolished for publications in the capital. The reforms also affected the army. The country was divided into 15 military regions. Since 1871, universal military service was introduced for men over 20 years old (service life in the ground forces is up to 6 years, and in the navy - up to 7 years). The reforms carried out were progressive. Russia, to a certain extent, approached the advanced European model for that time. However, many reforms were characterized by inconsistency and incompleteness. In addition, they were closely connected with the personality of Alexander II himself. After the death of Alexander II from a terrorist bomb, his son Alexander III became emperor in 1881. The tsar's inner circle consisted of the most reactionary politicians: Chief Prosecutor of the Synod K. P. Pobedonostsev, Minister of the Interior Count D. A. Tolstoy, and publicist M. N. Katkov. The era of reaction began in Russia's domestic policy. In April 1881, the manifesto "On the inviolability of autocracy" was promulgated, and in August the "Regulation on enhanced protection" followed, which gave the government the right to introduce state of emergency and military courts. Since 1883, security departments began to operate. In order to strengthen the position of the nobility in the system of local government and limit the functions of zemstvos, a new "Regulations on provinces and county zemstvo institutions" (1890) and "City Regulations" (1892) were adopted. The government sought to completely subdue high school control of the state and church. In 1887, a circular about "cook's children" was introduced, which did not allow children from the lower classes to enter the gymnasium. In 1884, the new University Charter eliminated the autonomy of universities. The Provisional Rules on the Press of 1882 put an end to the liberal censorship policy of the 1960s. Not only the Ministry of the Interior, but also the Chief Prosecutor of the Synod received the right to close any publication. Reactionary transformations of the 1880s - 1890s were called counter-reforms. They actually canceled many results of the reforms of the 1860s, mothballed the crisis and paved the way for the crisis of the early twentieth century.
45. Judicial reform 1864.
The judicial system of Russia until the 60s of the XIX century. was determined by the provisions of the Institution of the provinces in 1775. The court was not separated from the administration and had a pronounced estate character. The judicial system was extremely complex. The legal proceedings, as before, were of a clerical nature, the theory of formal evaluation of evidence continued to be applied in it, there was no publicity of the process, there was no equality of the parties, the accused did not have the right to defense. The shortcomings of the judicial system and legal proceedings caused dissatisfaction even among the privileged classes (not only the bourgeoisie, but also the nobility) ". In 1864, after a long preparation, the following documents were approved, which constituted the judicial reform as a whole: 1) Institutions of judicial institutions; 2) The Charter of criminal justice 3) Charter of Civil Procedure 4) Charter on Punishments Imposed by Justices of the Peace Judicial reform of 1864 proclaimed the bourgeois principles of the judiciary and legal proceedings: independence and separation of the court from the administration, creation of an all-class court, equality of all before the court, introduction of jurors, the creation of a clearer system of judicial instances.The judicial statutes of November 20, 1864, decisively broke with the pre-reform judiciary and legal proceedings. ness of legal proceedings; when considering criminal cases in the district court, the participation of jurors was envisaged. These are all characteristic features of a bourgeois court. The world court was created in counties and cities to consider minor criminal cases. The magistrate's court had jurisdiction over cases for which a punishment in the form of a reprimand, remark or suggestion, a fine not exceeding 300 rubles, arrest not more than three months, or imprisonment not more than a year followed. When considering criminal cases in the district court, the institution of jurors was provided. It was introduced despite the resistance of conservative forces and even the reluctance of Alexander II himself. They motivated their negative attitude towards the idea of jurors by the fact that the people had not grown up to this yet, and such a trial would inevitably have a “political character”. According to the judicial statutes, a juror could be a citizen of Russia aged 25 to 70, who was not under trial and investigation, who was not excluded from service in court and was not subjected to public condemnation for vices, who was not under guardianship, who did not suffer from mental illness, blindness, dumb and lived in this county for at least two years. A relatively high property qualification was also required. The second instance for district courts was the Judicial Chamber, which had departments. Its chairman and members were approved by the king on the proposal of the Minister of Justice. It served as the appellate court for civil and criminal cases heard in district courts without a jury. The Senate was regarded as the supreme court of cassation and had criminal and civil cassation departments. Senators were appointed by the king on the proposal of the Minister of Justice. The prosecutor's office was reorganized, it was included in the judicial department, it was headed by the prosecutor general, who is also the minister of justice. Chairmen of courts, prosecutors and judicial investigators were required to have a higher legal education or solid legal practice. Judges and judicial investigators were irremovable, they were assigned high salaries in order to secure honest professionals for judicial institutions. The largest step towards the introduction of the principles of bourgeois justice was the establishment of the institution of the Bar. On November 20, 1866, it was allowed "to print in all time-based publications about what happens in the courts." Court reports reporting on Russian and foreign trials are becoming a prominent phenomenon in the press.
46. Zemstvo reform of 1864.
On January 1, 1864, Alexander II approved the “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” - a legislative act that introduced the zemstvo. It must be borne in mind that for a country whose majority of the population were peasants who had just freed themselves from serfdom, the introduction of local governments was a significant step in the development of political culture. Elected by various estates of Russian society, zemstvo institutions were fundamentally different from corporate-class organizations, such as noble assemblies. The feudal lords were indignant at the fact that on the bench in the zemstvo assembly "a slave of yesterday is sitting next to his recent master." Indeed, various estates were represented in the zemstvos - nobles, officials, clergy, merchants, industrialists, philistines and peasants. Members of zemstvo assemblies were called vowels. The chairmen of the meetings were the leaders of the noble self-government - the leaders of the nobility. The meetings formed the executive bodies - district and provincial zemstvo councils. Zemstvos received the right to collect taxes for their needs and to hire employees. The sphere of activity of the new bodies of all-estate self-government was limited only to economic and cultural affairs: the maintenance of local means of communication, care for the medical care of the population, public education, local trade and industry, national food, etc. New bodies of all-estate self-government were introduced only at the level of provinces and districts. There was no central zemstvo representation, and there was no small zemstvo unit in the volost. Contemporaries wittily called the Zemstvo "a building without a foundation and a roof." The slogan "crowning the building" has since become the main slogan of the Russian liberals for 40 years - until the creation of the State Duma.
47. City reform of 1870.
Russia's entry onto the path of capitalism was marked by the rapid development of cities, a change in the social structure of their population, and led to an increase in the role of cities as centers of the economic, socio-political and cultural life of the country. The city reform of 1870 created all-estate bodies of local self-government. Administrative functions were no longer assigned to the entire city society, but to its representative body - the Duma. Elections to the Duma took place every four years. The number of members of the Duma - vowels - was quite significant: depending on the number of voters in the city - from 30 to 72 people. There were much more vowels in the capital's dumas: in Moscow - 180, St. Petersburg - 252. An executive body was elected at a meeting of the Duma public administration- the council and the mayor, who was the chairman of the executive and administrative bodies at the same time. Suffrage was based on the bourgeois property qualification. The right to participate in elections, regardless of class, was given to owners of immovable property taxed in favor of the city, as well as persons paying certain commercial and industrial fees to it. Various departments, institutions, societies, companies, churches, monasteries also used the right to vote as a legal entity. Only men who had reached the age of 25 were allowed to take part in the voting personally. Women who had the necessary electoral qualifications could participate in elections only through their proxies. In fact, hired workers, the overwhelming majority of whom did not own real estate, as well as representatives of the educated part of the population, people of mental labor: engineers, doctors, teachers, officials, who mostly did not have their own houses, turned out to be deprived of the right to vote, but rented apartments. The tasks of managing the municipal economy were entrusted to new public institutions. A wide range of issues of urban economy and improvement were transferred to their jurisdiction: water supply, sewerage, street lighting, transport, landscaping, urban planning problems, etc. City dumas were also obliged to take care of the “public welfare”: to assist in providing the population with food, to take measures against fires and other disasters, to help protect “public health” (set up hospitals, help the police in carrying out sanitary and hygienic measures), to take measures against beggary, promote the spread public education(establish schools, museums, etc.)
Capitalism also penetrated the peasant economy, contributing to the process of social stratification and the growth of contradictions in the countryside. While the majority of the peasants were becoming poor, rich peasants appeared in the villages, who were engaged in trade, started crafts, and invested their capital in industry.
The feudal-serf system slowed down the development of capitalist relations in industry. However, the use of hired labor, especially in privately owned manufactories, gradually grew. Even in the metallurgical industry, which was previously dominated by serf labor, many jobs (ore harvesting, charcoal etc.) began to be carried out by hired workers, which was more profitable for breeders. In the 30s-50s years XIX in. manufactories began to turn into capitalist factories based on the use of steam engines. The first were built railways. New classes developed - the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, whose interests, which consisted in the destruction of serfdom, coincided at this stage.
The wars in which Russia took part had a great influence on the intensification of crisis phenomena in Russian society. So, if the consequence Patriotic War 1812 was the movement of the "Decembrists" and their uprising on December 14, 1825, then the results of the Russian-Turkish war of 1853-1856. served as a powerful impetus for the abolition of serfdom.
The population of the empire was still divided into estates - the nobility, the clergy, the peasantry and the philistines, to which the merchants closely adjoined. The nobility remained the dominant class. His economic and political power was based on land ownership and the right to exploit the peasants, most of whom were considered their property. Representatives of the nobility occupied almost all important positions in the state apparatus.
Emperor Alexander I restored the “Charter to the Nobility” (1785), which was canceled by his father Paul I. The nobility retained all the old privileges and even received new rights: to own factories and plants, to trade on a par with the merchants. The feudal state provided economic support to the nobles through the State Loan Bank and other credit institutions.
At the same time, stratification among the nobility increased. Many of them were dispossessed (14% in 1835), while wealthy nobles (1.1%) owned 33% of the serfs. The autocratic government sought to strengthen its main support - the big landowners. To this end, in 1834, the land qualification was increased during the elections of noble class bodies, which increased the influence of wealthy landlords on local government.
In order to preserve large landowner farms, a law was passed (July 16, 1845), which prohibited the fragmentation of reserved noble estates (mayorats). They were to be inherited only by the eldest son and were not subject to alienation in favor of outsiders.
Most of the landowners fully approved of the government's policy pursued in the interests of the nobility. At the same time, in the first quarter of the 19th century, among a small part of the nobles, under the influence of the French and American revolutions, a liberal movement arose, whose leaders (P.I. Pestel, N.M. Muravyov and others) advocated the abolition of serfdom and restriction, or even destruction, of the autocratic system. The apogee of the development of this movement was the armed uprising in St. Petersburg on December 14, 1825, which became known as the "Decembrist uprising" and was brutally suppressed by Emperor Nicholas I.
The clergy - the second privileged class - was still divided into black (monastic) and white (parish). In the development of the legal status of the clergy, the following features should be noted. On the one hand, all its representatives received even greater privileges. So, in 1801 they personally, and since 1835 and their families, were exempted from corporal punishment. Since 1807, the houses of the clergy were exempted from land tax, and since 1821 - from military quarters. The clergy, awarded with orders, acquired the rights of the nobility. Only for the period 1825-1845. more than 10 thousand clergy received noble rights. At the same time, the hereditary nobility complained only to representatives of the white clergy, and the black clergy, together with the order, received the so-called "commandership", i.e. the right to use a piece of inhabited land for the purpose of generating income.
On the other hand, the autocracy wanted to turn the clergy into a small and manageable social group. The black clergy were reduced in number, and the rest was limited only to persons directly related to the performance of the church service. For these purposes, the states of monasteries were limited, an educational qualification was established for all candidates for church positions. By decree of 1828, the children of clergymen, “for excess”, were asked to enter the civil or civil society of their choice. military service. Those who did not do this during the year were to “certainly” be recorded in one of the taxable estates. After 1831, the recruitment of unemployed priests into the army was stopped. Since 1842, a gradual transfer of the parish clergy to state support was carried out.
In general, the Russian clergy occupied conservative, loyal positions. But the persecution of the schismatics, although on a smaller scale, continued. Many representatives of the Catholic clergy were subjected to repression by the government, especially after the Polish uprising of 1831-1832.
Feudal-dependent peasants made up the bulk of the population. Among them stood out landlord (ownership), state, sessional and appanage peasants. Particularly difficult, as before, was the position of the landlord peasants, who were considered the property of their owners. In the Code of Laws Russian Empire”(1835) serfs were classified as movable property.
Under Alexander I, attempts were made to start a peasant reform, but things did not go beyond discussions and the adoption of some minor measures. Nevertheless, it should be noted as a positive fact that an end was put to the expansion of serfdom: the distribution of state estates to private ownership was prohibited.
In accordance with the Decree of 1803 "On free cultivators", the landlords received the right to release their peasants into the wild with land plots for a ransom established by the landowners themselves. However, only a few peasants could pay it. Until 1861, only 112,000 souls became "free cultivators".
In order to develop industry in 1818, a Decree was issued that allowed all landowners, including peasants, to establish factories and plants.
After the end of the Patriotic War of 1812, in order to reduce the cost of the treasury for the maintenance of the army, part of the state peasants (their total number reached 400 thousand souls) was transferred to the position of military settlers. Residents of military settlements created in 1816 by the ferocious General A.A. Arakcheev, were obliged to engage in agriculture while doing military service. They were forbidden to trade, go to the city, their whole life was shackled by strict rules of military discipline. This caused hatred for the "Arakcheev" system in society, and among the military settlers - riots. Having failed to fulfill their purpose, after a series of uprisings in military settlements (1831), they gradually began to be abolished and were completely eliminated in the 50s. At the same time, former military settlers turned into either state or specific peasants.
In 1842, the "Decree on obligated peasants" was adopted. He allowed the landowners to lease the land to the peasants, for which they had to fulfill the obligations established by the contract. However, only six landlords took advantage of this permission.
In 1847, the Ministry of State Property was established, which was entrusted with the management of state peasants. It streamlined quitrent taxation, increased the land allotments of state peasants and determined the rules for the work of peasant self-government bodies: the volost gathering, the volost administration, the rural assembly and the village headman.
In a number of industries, the predominant place was occupied by the sessional peasants. So, in 1860, in the manufacturing industry, they accounted for up to 85% of all workers. For manufacturers, they were less profitable than civilian workers, since they wage included the cost of quitrent. In 1835 the right of the landowners to recall the possessive peasants was limited. In 1840 State Council decided to begin the liquidation of the property-based enterprises, and the breeders were allowed to free the property-based peasants, turning them into civilian workers.
The position of the specific peasants has not changed in comparison with the previous period.
Conclusions on the issue. Russian history inherited from the previous period not only the form of government, but the whole social organization. The nobility continued to exert a huge influence on state affairs. Additional privileges are given to the clergy, who are exempt from land tax and from lodging. The formation of new classes (bourgeoisie) took place within the framework of the former estate system. Despite all the changes in the economy, legal status individual groups of the population was the same. However, a small concession had to be made to the bourgeoisie.
The population was divided into 4 estates: the nobility, the clergy, urban and rural inhabitants.
1) Nobility: the ruling population. The right to own plants and factories in cities was added. But the state view of the nobles as a service class remained valid. In the 19th century, the "report card ..." continued to operate, which opened access to the nobility to people from other classes. An educational qualification was introduced for officials. The bar for the acquisition of the nobility of a hereditary rank was raised (state councilor 4th class and colonel in military service 5th class).
2) Clergy: divided into black and white (deprived of the right to acquire serfs with land and without land), and white - into clergy (in 1801 exempted from corporal punishment) and clergy. In the 19th century, it was allowed to leave the clergy, the jobless clergy were recruited for military service. It was forbidden to engage in trade and industry. The monastic vows obligated him to transfer his family estate to the rightful heirs. Monastic vows for men under 30, and for women 40 were not allowed.
3) Rural inhabitants: the Russian peasantry was divided into state, palace, possession, landowners (they were in the position of slaves). 1803 February 20 "Decree on free cultivators" - it was allowed for landowners to release their peasants both for ransom and without ransom, but with the obligatory allocation of land, which was fixed in their property. In 1840, the property-owning peasants received freedom. In 1841 the slave trade was ended. In 1848, a decree was issued allowing serfs to acquire ownership of land, houses, shops, real estate to them.
4) Urban dwellers: in 1832, honorary citizenship was established by decree (they were exempted from corporal punishment, from recruitment duty, from the capitation salary). It was divided into personal (university graduates, artists with certificates, children of merchants of the 1st and 2nd guilds, graduates of gymnasiums with a gold and silver medal) and hereditary citizenship (for scientists with a doctorate / magistrate degree, artist of the 1st category, merchants who were in the 1st guild for 10 years, during 2 - 20 years, merchants with orders). Honorary gra-in was attributed to the Senate. Merchants already had privileges. Petty merchants, artisans, homeowners belonged to the bourgeoisie.
Systematization of Russian laws in the lane. half of the 19th century M.M. Speransky.
A special commission led by P.V. Zavodskoy for drafting Russian legislation. A key role in the work of the commission was played by M.M. Speransky. As a result, 3 projects: civil, criminal, tor. There was no positive result.
In 1826, 2 departments were created at the office of the emperor to draw up the codification of legislation, Professor M.A. Balusyansky, Speransky was brought in.
Stage 1: creation of a complete collection of laws of the Republic of Ingushetia. 1826-1830 4 volumes - acts, 6 volumes - reference materials, 31 thousand normative acts. The PSZ included all the acts written since 1649, included effective acts and ineffective ones (acts of the FUS). The principle is chronological;
Stage 2: creation of the Code of Laws of the Republic of Ingushetia. 1830-1832 15 volumes, only current acts. The construction of volumes is based on the branch principle.
On January 31, 1833, Nicholas 1 issued a manifesto on the publication of the Code of Laws of the Republic of Ingushetia, according to which the code was declared a valid source of law from January 1, 1835. Codification / incorporation - new acts, old ones are changed, processing. NW from 1835 to October 1917.
Advantages: served as the beginning of the formation of the main branches of Ros. Rights; made available the norms of the Russian Federation for judges and officials. Cons: contained a lot of outdated norms.
main idea Speransky - to collect all the acts, select the current ones, apply industry codes (codes). 1845 to adopt the Code of Punishment of Criminal and Correctional (UK).
33. Civil law according to SZ RI 1832.(Egorov's textbook 284 + lecture).
34. Family law according to SZ RI 1832.(textbook Egorov 296 + lecture).
In the second half of the XVIII - early XIX century. there was a process of decomposition of the feudal serf system and the development of bourgeois relations, which led to a change in the class structure of Russian society. New classes were born bourgeoisie and proletariat. The entire population was still divided into four estates: nobility, clergy, peasantry and city dwellers.
The ruling class was nobility. The economic and political power of the nobles was based on land ownership and the right to exploit the peasants who lived on the lands belonging to the nobles. They had a monopoly on the ownership of serfs. Representatives of the nobility occupied all important positions in government. The feudal state sought to strengthen the position of the nobility.
The title of nobility was considered as an inalienable, hereditary and hereditary, extending to all members of the nobleman's family. The nobility had such privileges as the freedom of the nobles to serve, leave the service, travel to other states, and renounce citizenship.
Among personal rights of nobles it can be noted: the right to noble dignity, the right to protect honor, personality and life, exemption from corporal punishment, etc. The property rights of the nobility included the following: property rights; the right to acquire, use and inherit any type of property; the right to have factories and plants in cities; the right to trade on an equal footing with the merchants, etc.
With the increase land qualification the elections strengthened the role of large landowners in the noble class bodies and their influence on local government.
Since 1798, military personnel who were not nobles were not presented to the officer rank, and all non-noble officers were dismissed from military service.
Clergy still divided into "black" (monastic) and "white" (parish). In the development of the legal status of the clergy, the following two points should be noted.
On the one hand, the clergy received great perks: they and their children were freed from corporal punishment, the houses of the clergy were freed from land tax, from lodging, etc.
On the other hand, the autocracy tried limit the clergy only by persons directly serving in the churches.
The authorities sought to tie the most devoted ministers of the church to their social environment, where the noble aristocracy dominated. The clergy awarded with orders acquired noble rights. Thus, the autocracy wanted to turn the clergy into a small and manageable social group.
The bulk of the population were feudal-dependent peasants. They were subdivided into landlord, state, sessional and appanage.
In 1801, a Decree was adopted, according to which merchants, philistines and all peasants (landlord peasants - by Decree of 1803) were granted the right to buy land.
In accordance with the Decree of 1803 on free cultivators, the landlords received the right to release their peasants into the wild for a ransom set by the landowners themselves. Before the peasant reform of 1861, about 112 thousand people became free farmers.
In 1816, part of the state peasants was transferred to the position military settlers. They were obliged to engage in agriculture and carry out military service. They were forbidden to trade, go to the city, their life was regulated by the Military Charter.
In order to develop industry in 1818. A decree was issued that allowed all peasants to establish factories and plants.
In 1842 was adopted Decree on obligated peasants. In accordance with this act, the landlords could provide the peasants with land for lease, for which they had to fulfill the obligations established by the contract.
In 1847, to manage the state peasants, a Ministry of State Property. The quitrent taxation was also streamlined, the land allotments of state peasants were increased and the organs of peasant self-government were regulated: the volost gathering, the volost administration, the rural assembly, the village headman.
First half of the 19th century characterized by the rapid growth of cities: the number of urban population, the process of its stratification intensifies.
In 1832, a personal and hereditary honorary citizenship. Honorary citizens were granted certain privileges: they did not pay the poll tax, did not bear recruitment duty, and were exempted from corporal punishment.
Due to the interest of the state in the development of trade and industry, rich merchants were endowed with special rights. Merchants It was divided into two guilds: the first guild included wholesalers, the second guild - retailers.
group guild composed and artisans assigned to the workshops. They were divided into masters and apprentices. The workshops had their own governing bodies.
working people, which included persons who were not accepted into the philistine societies, constituted the lowest group of the urban population.
Part personal rights of the burghers included: the right to protect honor and dignity, personality, life, the right to move, the right to travel abroad, etc. Among property rights of the bourgeoisie can be distinguished: the right to own property, the right to acquire, use and inherit any type of property, the right to own industrial enterprises and crafts, the right to trade, etc.
The townspeople had their own class court
In the first half of the 19th century, Russia was an absolutist and feudal state. At the head of the empire was the king, who concentrated everything more and more; control threads in their hands. However, officially the entire population was still divided into four estates: the nobility, the clergy, the peasantry and urban residents.
Nobility, as in the previous period, was the economically and politically dominant class. The nobles owned for the most part land, they owned a monopoly on the ownership of serfs. They formed the basis of the state apparatus, occupying all command positions in it.
Clergy still divided into black (monastic) and white (parish). However, the legal status of this class, which finally turned into a service class, has changed significantly. On the one hand, the ministers of the church themselves received even greater privileges. On the other hand, the autocracy sought to limit the clergy only to persons directly serving in churches.
feudal dependents peasants constituted the bulk of the population. They were subdivided into landlord, state, sessional and appanage belonging to the royal family. Particularly difficult, as in previous years, was the situation of the landlord peasants. In the 10th volume of the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire (civil and boundary laws), serfs were ranked as movable property. Since 1816 part of the state peasants was transferred to the position of military settlers. They were supposed to be engaged in agriculture, handing over half of the harvest to the state, and to carry out military service.
Merchants and tradesmen constituted only a few percent of the population.
was in a special position Cossacks- a paramilitary class that performed the function of protecting the border areas of the state.
With the beginning of the industrial revolution, the formation of a new social stratum is associated - civilian workers. Poor townspeople, state peasants and serfs were employed at manufactories and factories, who left to work with the permission of their masters. By 1860, 4/5 of the workers were civilians.
In the second half of the XIX Russia's social development was determined by the conditions and course of the implementation of the peasant reform and the development of capitalist relations.
The class division of society has been preserved. Each class (nobles, peasants, merchants, philistines, clergy) had clearly defined privileges or restrictions. The development of capitalism gradually changed the social structure and appearance of estates, formed two new social groups - the classes of capitalist society (the bourgeoisie and the proletariat). AT social structure intertwined features of the old and new social order.
The dominant position in the country still belonged to nobles. The nobility remained the backbone of the autocracy, occupied key positions in the bureaucracy, the army and public life. Some nobles, adapting to new conditions, actively participated in industrial and financial activities.
grew fast bourgeoisie, which was formed from the merchants, bourgeoisie, representatives of the wealthy peasantry. It gradually gained economic strength, but played an insignificant role in the political life of the country. Weak and unorganized, it supported the autocracy, which ensured an expansionist foreign policy and the possibility of exploiting the working people.
Peasants remained the most numerous social group. Having received freedom in 1861, they hardly adapted to their new social position. For this class, numerous restrictions continued to be maintained in a wide variety of social spheres. The community remained unshakable, limiting the legal, economic and personal life of the peasant. The community slowed down the social stratification of the peasants, but could not prevent it. It was moving at a slow pace. However, the penetration of capitalist relations into the countryside contributed to the division of the villagers into kulaks (rural bourgeoisie) and the bulk of the poor and half-ruined peasantry.
The impoverished peasantry and the urban poor served as a source of formation proletariat. The peculiarity of the working class in Russia was that it did not break its ties with the countryside. Therefore, the maturation of the cadre proletariat proceeded at a slow pace.
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