What were the symbols of power in ancient Rome. Armenian symbols on the coins of ancient Rome

A.E. Negin

It took almost a hundred years from the time of Constantine until the death of Theodosius in 395 to transform Christianity from a minority religion into a religion recognized as the only legitimate cult.

This transformation was neither a straightforward, continuous process, nor any one-sided measure of state bodies pursuing ideological goals. One of the clear indicators of the breakthroughs of this development is the process of replacing pagan symbols in the Roman army with Christian ones. It is quite obvious that it did not pass as it was presented by Christian authors, but in stages and rather slowly.

According to the written sources at our disposal, the replacement of the old pagan symbols in the Roman army took place as follows. According to Eusebius, Constantine, at the end of October 312, decided that the cross should become the hallmark of his legions. On the eve of the battle at the Milvian bridge, Eusebius testifies, Constantine saw a fiery cross in the sky with the Greek inscription En toutoi nika - "By this you conquer" (Euseb. Vita. Const. I. 28). Usually tradition conveys this phrase in Latin form: In hoc vince, or In hoc signo vinces - "Under this sign you will win." Eusebius, who is the only source of information about this vision, by his own admission (Euseb. Hist. eccl. VIII. 2), is prone to edification: “But knowing,” he assures, “that the emperor swore to confirm the truth of this message to me, who was about to write this story ... who can doubt him? (Eizeb. Una. Const. I. 28). The next morning, according to Eusebius and Lactantius (Euseb. Vita. Const. I. 29; Lact. De mort. persecut. XLIV. 5), Constantine heard a voice in a dream commanding that the so-called "chrysm" - the symbol of Christ - be inscribed on the soldiers' shields . When he woke up, he did as he was told, and then stood under the banner (known since then as labarum), which depicted the initial letters of the name of Christ, woven with the cross. By this action, Constantine wanted to show that he decided to share his fate with the Christians, who were many in his army.

This battle was a turning point in the history of religion - Constantine won the battle at the Milvian bridge. Subsequently, he ordered that the monogram of Christ be placed on his helmet (Euseb. Vita. Const. I. 31). Prudentius also tells of placing a Christian monogram on the helmets of warriors who followed the example of their leader (Prudent. Contra Symm. I. 489). Thus, according to Christian tradition, the cross entered the military symbolism. But quite recently, the cross for soldiers was the personification of a terrible martyrdom - crucifixion.

However, if we take a critical look at the information of Christian authors and involve other sources for consideration of this issue, incl. iconographic and archaeological, we are presented with a slightly different picture of the penetration of Christian symbols into the Roman army.

The monogram of Christ appears on a coin of Constantine in 315. After that, it quickly came into general use and appeared on numerous objects. On a number of coins minted in 315, one can see the monograms of Christ placed on the frontal part or longitudinal crest of hemispherical helmets. V Lately there are also real finds of plates with the image of a monogram attached to the crests of helmets. In the mid 1990s. in the valley of the Meuse River (Netherlands) a late Roman treasure was found containing the remains of a helmet with such symbols. Two other similar plates, attached to the crests of helmets, were found in Sisak (Croatia). Similar brooches have been found in Savaria (Szombathely) and Alshoheten. And, finally, the “christy” is placed on the nosepiece of the helmet from Alshoheten. At the same time, this is not the only version of the Christian symbol depicted on the helmets of that time. In 1909, the remains of 15-20 helmets were found in Intercise, of which four whole specimens were collected. They are decorated with a silver taush in the form of a pair of eyes on the frontal part and crescents. And on the crown of one of them, images of four-beam stars are clearly visible. If four-beam stars are interpreted as crosses, because they are very reminiscent of the so-called. catacomb cross, then such decor seems to be a bizarre unity of Christian and Eastern cultural traditions, because in Sasanian Iran, the crescent was the sign of the moon god. Another type of Christian cross, the image of which appears on a helmet from a treasure in a swamp near Derne, is an anchor - a symbol of Christian hope for the future Resurrection, as the Apostle Paul says in his letter to the Hebrews (Heb. 6:18-20).

Contrary to the words of Eusebius, Lactantius and Prudentius about the introduction by Constantine of the tradition of depicting the Christian emblem on shields (Prudent. Contra Symm. I. 488), we do not find confirmation of this statement in other sources. There is no hint of such shield decoration either on the Arch of Constantine (by the way, dedicated to the victory over Maxentius and depicting episodes of the fateful battle at the Milvian Bridge), or on other monuments of the first half of the 4th century. There are no images of the monogram of Christ on the shields of the army units of the Western and Eastern Roman Empire of the 4th century BC. in Notitia Dignitatum. The Christian monogram, which fills the entire surface of the shield, appears on later monuments as a special badge of the emperor's bodyguards,

for example, on a silver dish from a catacomb on the territory of the Gordikov estate in Kerch, columns of Theodosius the Great and Arcadius, on a fifth century diptych, on a mosaic of the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna. According to the Notitia Dignitatum, each unit continued to use distinctive inscriptions on their shields to distinguish themselves from others in battle. Although, it is quite possible that the soldiers could depict the monogram of Christ on their shields very small. At the same time, of course, she remained an unofficial, although a permitted symbol and was depicted without a laurel wreath, which Lactantius does not mention, and which would be very out of place there.

Hypothetical reconstruction of late Roman shield painting depicting Christian symbols

For these reconstructions, various iconographic sources of the Western and Eastern parts of the Roman Empire were used. 1 - column of Theodosius I; 2 - a silver dish from Kerch; 3 - Notitia Dignitatum. Unit shield color taken Vindices from the composition Auxilia palatina(palace divisions); 4 - Notitia Dignitatum. Unit shield color taken Celtae seniors from the composition Auxilia palatina. In both latter cases, Christian symbolism is added hypothetically.

According to the descriptions of Eusebius (Euseb. Vita. Const. I. 30; 31), the labarum (which he saw personally) had the following appearance. On a long, gold-plated spear there was a transverse rail, which formed a sign of the cross with the spear, and on it was a symbol of the saving name: two letters showed the name of Christ, from the middle of which came the letter “ro”. Thus, the labarum depicted the same "chrism" in the form in which it later received the name "monogram of Constantine."

True, Eusebius writes that the labarum existed even before the trip to Italy. But from his story, it seems to be inferred that this banner began to be displayed at the head of the armies only ten years after Constantine declared himself the liberator of the church (Euseb. Vita. Const. II. 7-9). Whether a Christian monogram was depicted on this banner before the battle of the Milvian Bridge is unknown, since Eusebius does not say anything about this.

Unlike the apologists of Christianity, one of the most informative authors of the time described, Ammianus Marcellinus, who himself served in the army, nowhere mentions either the symbols of Christian warriors or the labarum. Moreover, it follows from his passages that eagles and dragons continued to be used as combat badges (Amm. Marc. XVI. 12. 12). Moreover, he mentions them repeatedly, and not only in connection with the description of the time of the short-term reaction of Julian the Apostate (Amm. Marc. XVI. 12. 39), but also in the subsequent period (Amm. Marc. XXVI. 2. 11). It is difficult to suspect the author of bias, especially when describing military realities and everyday life. Therefore, it is quite obvious that even after the appearance of the Konstantinovsky labarum, not only the soldiers, but also the emperor himself continued to use eagles and a dragon-shaped standard as battle badges and the main military imperial banner. Apparently, Ammian Marcellinus deliberately does not mention the images of Christian symbols on items of individual equipment, since for him personally it did not have any sacred content.

It follows from this that Christian symbolism appeared in the Roman army gradually. One can even say that it was only legalized by Constantine, since the Christians of his army were already gradually using it. Constantine rejected the pagan cult and idolatry, which is unnatural for a Christian, and this was the most terrible for the baptized. It is not for nothing that Tertullian, in his treatise “On the Crown”, written around 211, with all his fury falls upon the Christian soldiers who wear wreaths at military ceremonies that were directly connected with the pagan cult, since they were worn by Pandora, Hercules, Apollo, Bacchus and Osiris (Tertul. De cor. 1-11). Hence the duality of the attitude of Christians to military service, where the old pagan cults have not yet been outlived, when the "religious" side army life was considered by many Christians as a purely formal and official matter. As can be seen from the example of archaeological finds, Christian soldiers individually, following the example of Constantine, began to place on their helmets and, possibly, sewn the monogram of Christ, but several more decades passed before, on the monuments that have come down to our time, there are signs some kind of officialdom, unification and mass introduction of Christian symbols into the emblems of the army. And this applies primarily to the monuments of the Eastern Roman Empire. At the end of the IV century. shields of the imperial guards and banners with the image of the monogram of Christ appear on the columns of Theodosius the Great and Arcadius, known from the drawings of the 16th century. from the Trinity College Library, Cambridge. Thus, by the end of the 4th c. the process of introducing Christian symbols was already at the final stage. In general, this process can be divided into the following stages.

First, individual implementation had to take place, when baptized soldiers began to place symbols of their faith on the armor. Even the Apostle Paul, in his letters, although not directed directly to the soldiers, called for putting on the weapon of light and truth, creating the idea of ​​a “spiritual army”, in which the soldiers are armed with the “armor of righteousness”, “helmet of salvation”, “shield of faith”, “sword spiritual, which is the Word of God” (Eph. 6:17). Of course, Paul has judgments directly about war, weapons, military service no. However, he points out to Christians an analogy: “the sword is the word of God, the helmet is hope,” etc. In other words, "non-God's" swords and helmets are not needed by Christians. However, as is known, most of The martyrdom of Christian soldiers falls at the turn of the 3rd-4th centuries, when the imperial cult reached its peak, and when an individual oath with sacrifices to the statue of the ruler had to be taken not only by officers, but also by ordinary soldiers. Therefore, the stage of individual implementation could begin only after the appearance of the edict on religious tolerance towards Christians, issued by the emperor Galerius in Nicomedia on April 30, 311. The length of time from the edict of Galerius to the victory at the Milvian bridge was undoubtedly very important, since it showed Constantine that it is necessary to pursue a more flexible policy, both in relation to Christians and adherents of old cults, so as not to offend the religious feelings of either one or the other.

On the other hand, in the absence of reliable data confirming the presence of Christian symbols on weapons already at the end of the first decade of the 4th century, it is rather difficult to consider this stage and it is impossible to draw any far-reaching conclusions regarding this stage. We can assume the semi-legal nature of this symbolism, which could appear, for example, on the inside of the shield or as an element of the decoration of soldier's clothing. At the same time, she was not an element of the cult put on display, remaining a purely personal link between the believer and God. Moreover, the symbols, later interpreted by Christian authors as unambiguously Christian, in these years could have a completely different meaning. So, for example, A. Donini interpreted the words of Lactantius about the inverted letter X with a crushed top (Lact. De mort. persecut. XLIV. 5) as an image of the symbol of the Invincible Sun, which the Gallic troops of Constantine inscribed on their shields and which is also found on the coins of the Gauls .

In the second ethane, Constantine turned the cross into a symbol surrounded by religious veneration. In this way, Constantine managed to ensure that the banner with the image of the Christian symbol became for all his soldiers what they were sacred, surrounded by reverence and possessing, according to the soldiers, the ability to scare away the enemy pagan cult objects. However, at this stage, elements of paganism continued to exist, since there was no universal Christianization. This can explain the absence, in most cases, of images of Christian symbols on the propaganda monuments of Constantine's time, although it was on them that it should have appeared.

Here, the duality of Constantine is most clearly visible. The clearest example of this is the arch of Constantine, erected in 315. The images on it of the decisive battle still testify to Constantine’s attitude towards the Invincible Sun, but the dedication inscription connects Constantine’s achievements with the divine inspiration and greatness of the spirit of the ruler: “To Emperor Caesar Flavius ​​Constantine, the greatest, pious, happy Augustus, the Senate and the people of Rome dedicate this arch, because, thanks to divine inspiration and his greatness of spirit, together with the army, he avenged the city of the tyrant and his entire clique in a just battle. It is obvious that a wording has been chosen that does not provoke the Old Believers, but does not exclude interpretation in the Christian sense. Images and inscriptions on Roman coins point to a similar direction, since the images of the old gods adorned the coins of Constantine until 321 or 322. Despite his new alliance with Christ, Constantine continued to be the high priest and retained the traditional forms of the emperor's cult. The politician Konstantin was not ready for the consistency in the religious sphere that Christians expected from him.

Subsequent events show the severity of the struggle between Christians and Old Believers. The successor of Constantius II, Emperor Julian, nicknamed the Apostate for his uncompromising desire to revive the old religion, did not make any concessions in the embodiment of this idea of ​​his, and Christian symbolism was briefly rejected.

A new aggravation of religious clashes occurred after the defeat of the emperor Valens at Adrianople in 378, after which the Christian rulers persecuted those who did not have the true faith, against the Arians and the last representatives of the old cult. Then the third stage of the introduction of Christian symbols in the army began, marked by even wider transformations. It was then that "chrism", as a distinctive sign, is often depicted on the shields of individual units (primarily the imperial bodyguards); the number of helmets with the image of the same sign on the frontal part or on the crest continues to increase, and the number of images of banners with Christian symbols continues to increase.

As you can see, the appearance of Christian symbols in the Roman army was not instantaneous, but its gradual introduction stretched over almost the entire 4th century. An unambiguous judgment about this process based only on the works of the apologists of Christianity is at least unreasonable, because in this case an aberration towards the legendary part in history is inevitable.

Notes

Alföldi A. The helmet of Constantine with the Christian monogram // Journal of Roman Studies. 1932. 22. P. 11.

Ibid. P. 11-23.

Prins J. The "Fortune" of Late-Roman Officer // Association pour l "Antiquité tardive. Bulletin. 1998. 7. P. 52-53; Kocsis L. A new Late Roman helmet from Hetény in the Hungarian National Museum // Libelli archaeologici Ser nov 2003 1 P 533, 548-549 Fig 9, 10

Migotti B. Evidence for Christianity in Roman Southern Pannonia (Northern Croatia). A catalog of finds and sites. BAR International Series 684. Oxford, 1997. P. 58; Kocsis L. Op. cit. P. 533, 547. 6, 7.

Sosztarits O. Urchristliche Kleidungsnadel aus Savaria // Specimina Nova Universitatis Quinqueecclesiensis XII. 1996. P. 311. 2-3; Kocsis L. Op. cit. P. 533, 547. eight.

Wypustek-Krzyzowski A. Chrzescjane a armia rzymska - "De corona militis" Tertuliana // Pod znakami Aresa i Marsa / Red. E. Dabrowa. Krakow, 1995. S.132.

Donini A. At the origins of Christianity (from its origin to Justinian). M., 1979. S. 216.

"IMPERATORI CAESARI FLAVIO CONSTANTINO MAXIMO PIO FELICI AVGVSTO SENATVS POPVLVSQVE ROMANVS QVOD INSTINCTV DIVINITATIS MENTIS MAGNITVDINE CVM EXERCITV SVO TAM DE TYRANNO QVAM DE OMNI EIVS FACTIONE VNO TEMPORE IVVMSTIS REMPVBLICAM ARCAV EST ARMIS".

Publication:
Warrior No. 4, 2006, pp. 2-6


This is a kind of phase in the development of the Roman statehood of that time. It existed from 27 BC. e. to 476, and the main language was Latin.

The great Roman Empire kept many other states of that time in awe and admiration for centuries. And this is no accident. This power did not appear immediately. The empire developed gradually. Consider in the article how it all began, all the main events, emperors, culture, as well as the emblem and colors of the flag of the Roman Empire.

Periodization of the Roman Empire

As you know, all states, countries, civilizations in the world had a chronology of events, which can be conditionally divided into several periods. The Roman Empire has several main stages:

  • the period of the principate (27 BC - 193 AD);
  • crisis of the Roman Empire in the III century. AD (193 - 284 AD);
  • the period of dominance (284 - 476 AD);
  • collapse and division of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern.

Before the formation of the Roman Empire

Let us turn to history and consider briefly what preceded the formation of the state. In general, the first people on the territory of present-day Rome appeared around the second millennium BC. e. on the Tiber River. In the VIII century BC. e. two large tribes united, built a fortress. Thus, we can assume that April 13, 753 BC. e. Rome was formed.

First there was the royal and then the republican periods of government with their own events, kings and history. This period of time from 753 BC. e. called Ancient Rome. But in 27 B.C. e. Thanks to Octavian Augustus, an empire was formed. A new era has come.

Principate

The formation of the Roman Empire was facilitated by civil wars, from which Octavian emerged victorious. The Senate gave him the name Augustus, and the ruler himself founded the principate system, which included a mixture of monarchical and republican forms of government. He also became the founder of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, but it did not last long. Rome remained the capital of the Roman Empire.

The reign of Augustus was considered very favorable for the people. Being the nephew of the great commander - Gaius Julius Caesar - it was Octavian who became He carried out reforms: one of the main reforms is considered to be the reform of the army, the essence of which was to form the Roman military force. Each soldier had to serve up to 25 years, could not start a family and lived on welfare. But it helped to form at last a standing army after almost a century of formation, when it was unreliable due to inconstancy. Also, the merits of Octavian Augustus are considered to be the conduct of budgetary policy and, of course, the change in the system of power. Under him, Christianity began to emerge in the empire.

The first emperor was deified, especially outside of Rome, but the ruler himself did not want the capital to have a cult of ascension to God. But in the provinces many temples were erected in his honor and sacred significance was attached to his reign.

August spent a good part of his life on the road. He wanted to revive the spirituality of the people, thanks to him dilapidated temples and other structures were restored. During his reign, many slaves were freed, and the ruler himself was a sort of model of ancient Roman prowess and lived in a modest possession.

Julio-Claudian dynasty

The next emperor, as well as the great pontiff and representative of the dynasty, was Tiberius. He was the adopted son of Octavian, who also had a grandson. In fact, the issue of the succession to the throne remained unresolved after the death of the first emperor, but Tiberius stood out for his merits and intelligence, which is why he was to become a sovereign ruler. He himself did not want to be a despot. He ruled very honorably and not cruelly. But after problems in the emperor's family, as well as a clash of his interests with a senate full of republican attitudes, everything resulted in an "unholy war in the senate." He ruled from only 14 to 37 years.

The third emperor and representative of the dynasty was the son of Tiberius' nephew - Caligula, who ruled for only 4 years - from the 37th to the 41st. At first, everyone sympathized with him as a worthy emperor, but the authorities changed him greatly: he became cruel, caused strong discontent among the people and was killed.

The next emperor was Claudius (41-54), with the help of which, in fact, his two wives, Messalina and Agrippina, ruled. Through various manipulations, the second woman managed to make her son Nero the ruler (54-68). Under him there was a "great fire" in 64 AD. e., which greatly destroyed Rome. Nero committed suicide and broke out Civil War, in which the last three representatives of the dynasty died in just one year. 68-69 was called "the year of the four emperors".

Flavian dynasty (69 to 96 AD)

Vespasian was the main in the fight against the rebellious Jews. He became emperor and founded a new dynasty. He managed to suppress uprisings in Judea, restore the economy, rebuild Rome after the "great fire" and put the empire in order after numerous internal unrest and rebellions, and improve relations with the Senate. He ruled until 79 AD. e. His decent reign was continued by his son Titus, who ruled for only two years. The next emperor was the youngest son of Vespasian - Domitian (81-96). Unlike the first two representatives of the dynasty, he was distinguished by hostility and opposition to the senate. He was killed in a conspiracy.

During the reign of the Flavian dynasty, the great amphitheater of the Colosseum was created in Rome. It took 8 years to build it. Numerous gladiator fights were held here.

Antonine dynasty

The time fell precisely on the time of the reign of this dynasty. The rulers of this period were called "five good emperors". The Antonines (Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius) ruled successively from 96 to 180 AD. e. After the conspiracy and murder of Domitian, because of his hostility to the Senate, Nerva, who was just from the senatorial environment, became emperor. He ruled for two years, and the next ruler was his adopted son - Ulpius Trajan, who became one of the best people who ever ruled during the Roman Empire.

Trajan greatly expanded the territory. Four well-known provinces were formed: Armenia, Mesopotamia, Assyria and Arabia. The colonization of other places was required by Trajan, rather than for conquering purposes, but to protect against attacks by nomads and barbarians. The most remote places were surrounded by numerous stone towers.

The third emperor of the Roman Empire during the Antonine dynasty and the successor of Trajan - Hadrian. He made many reforms in law and education, as well as in finance. He was nicknamed "the enricher of the world". The next ruler was Antoninus, who was called the "father of the human race" for his concern not only for Rome, but also for the provinces that he improved. Then he ruled who was a very good philosopher, but he had to spend a lot of time in the war on the Danube, where he died in 180. On this, the era of the "five good emperors", when the empire flourished and democracy reached its peak, ended.

Commodus was the last emperor to end the dynasty. He was fond of gladiator fights, and he placed the management of the empire on the shoulders of other people. He died at the hands of the conspirators in 193.

Sever dynasty

People proclaimed the ruler of a native of Africa - the commander who ruled until his death in 211. He was very warlike, which was passed on to his son Caracalla, who became emperor by killing his brother. But it was thanks to him that people from the provinces finally got the right to become Both rulers did a lot. For example, they returned independence to Alexandria and gave the Alexandrians the right to occupy the state. positions. Then Heliogabalus and Alexander ruled until 235.

Crisis of the third century

This turning point was great importance for the people of that time that historians distinguish it as a separate period in the history of the Roman Empire. This crisis lasted for almost half a century: from 235 after the death of Alexander Severus until 284.

The reason was the wars with the tribes on the Danube, which began in the time of Marcus Aurelius, clashes with the Zarein people, the inconstancy of power. People had to fight a lot, and the authorities spent money, time and effort on these conflicts, which significantly worsened the economy and economy of the empire. And also in times of crisis there were constant conflicts between the armies that put forward their candidates for the throne. In addition, the Senate also fought for the right of its significant influence on the empire, but lost it altogether. Antique culture also fell into decay after the crisis.

Dominant period

The end of the crisis was the erection of Diocletian as emperor in 285. It was he who initiated the period of dominance, which meant a change from a republican form of government to an absolute monarchy. The era of the Tetrarchy also belongs to this time.

The emperor began to be called "dominate", which means "master and god". Domitian was the first to call himself that. But in the 1st century, such a position of the ruler would have been perceived with hostility, and after 285 - calmly. The Senate as such did not cease to exist, but now had no such great influence on the monarch, who ultimately made the decisions himself.

Under the dominance, when Diocletian ruled, Christianity had already penetrated into the life of the Romans, but all Christians began to be even more persecuted and punitive measures were taken for their faith.

In 305, the emperor relinquished power, a small struggle for the throne began, until Constantine, who ruled from 306 to 337, came to the throne. He was the sole ruler, but there was a division of the empire into provinces and prefectures. Unlike Diocletian, he was not so hard on Christians and even stopped subjecting them to persecution and persecution. Moreover, Constantine introduced common faith, and made Christianity the state religion. He also moved the capital from Rome to Byzantium, which was later called Constantinople. The sons of Constantine ruled from 337 to 363. In 363, Julian the Apostate died, which was the end of the dynasty.

The Roman Empire still continued to exist, although the transfer of the capital was a very abrupt event for the Romans. After 363, two more clans ruled: the dynasties of Valentinian (364-392) and Theodosius (379-457). It is known that a significant event in 378 was the Battle of Adrianople between the Goths and the Romans.

Fall of the Western Roman Empire

Rome actually continued to exist. But the end of the history of the empire is considered to be 476.

Its fall was influenced by the transfer of the capital to Constantinople under Constantine in 395, where the Senate was even recreated. It was this year that happened on the Western and Eastern. The beginning of the history of Byzantium (Eastern Roman Empire) is also considered this event in 395. But it is worth understanding that Byzantium is no longer the Roman Empire.

But why then does the story end only in 476? Because after 395, the Western Roman Empire with its capital in Rome also remained in existence. But the rulers could not cope with such a large territory, suffered constant attacks from enemies, and Rome was ruined.

This disintegration was facilitated by the expansion of the lands that had to be monitored, the strengthening of the army of enemies. After the battle with the Goths and the defeat of the Roman army of Flavius ​​​​Valens in 378, the former became very powerful for the latter, while the inhabitants of the Roman Empire were increasingly inclined towards a peaceful life. Few wanted to devote themselves to many years of the army, most loved just farming.

Already under the weakened Western Empire in 410, the Visigoths took Rome, in 455 the Vandals captured the capital, and on September 4, 476, the leader of the Germanic tribes, Odoacer, forced Romulus Augustus to abdicate. He became the last emperor of the Roman Empire, Rome no longer belonged to the Romans. Story great empire was finished. capital for a long time ruled by different people who have nothing to do with the Romans.

So, in what year did the Roman Empire collapse? Definitely in 476, but this disintegration can be said to have begun long before the events when the empire began to decline and weaken, and barbarian Germanic tribes began to inhabit the territory.

History after 476

Nevertheless, even though the overthrow of the Roman emperor happened at the top of power, and the empire passed into the possession of the German barbarians, the Romans still continued to exist. It continued to exist even for several more centuries after 376 until 630. But in terms of territory, Rome now belonged to only parts of present-day Italy. At this time, the Middle Ages had just begun.

The successor of the culture and traditions of civilization ancient rome became Byzantium. It had existed for almost a century after its formation, while the Western Roman Empire had fallen. Only by 1453 did the Ottomans capture Byzantium, and that was the end of its history. Constantinople was renamed Istanbul.

And in 962, thanks to Otto 1 the Great, the Holy Roman Empire was formed - a state. Its core was Germany, of which he was king.

Otto 1 the Great already owned very large territories. The empire of the 10th century included almost all of Europe, including Italy (the lands of the fallen Western Roman Empire, whose culture they wanted to recreate). Over time, the boundaries of the territory changed. Nevertheless, this empire lasted for almost a millennium until 1806, when Napoleon was able to dissolve it.

Rome was formally the capital. The Holy Roman Emperors ruled and had many vassals in other parts of their large domains. All the rulers claimed the supreme power in Christianity, which at that time gained a large-scale influence on the whole of Europe. The crown of the Holy Roman Emperors was only given by the pope after a coronation in Rome.

The coat of arms of the Roman Empire depicts a double-headed eagle. This symbol was met (and still is) in the symbols of many states. Oddly enough, the coat of arms of Byzantium also depicts such a symbol, as well as on the coat of arms of the Roman Empire.

The flag of the 13th-14th centuries depicted a white cross on a red background. However, it changed in 1400 and lasted until 1806 until the fall of the Holy Roman Empire.

The flag has a double-headed eagle since 1400. It symbolizes the emperor, while the one-headed bird symbolizes the king. The colors of the flag of the Roman Empire are also interesting: a black eagle on a yellow background.

Nevertheless, this is a very big misconception - to attribute the Roman Empire until medieval times to the Holy German Roman Empire, which, although Italy included, was in fact already a completely different state.

"Ancient Rome MHK" - Ancient Rome. Plan of Rome. Pantheon. Materials for the MHC lesson in grade 10. Reconstruction. Forum of Trajan Reconstruction. Roman Forum in the 4th century. Forum. Trajan's Column 114 BC. About 125g. August Forum. The dome and walls account for exactly half the height of the entire building, which is equal to the diameter of the base. Interior of the Pantheon.

"Roman Empire" - Taxation system, elements of the state apparatus. The weakening of the central government. Romanization. TASK #1. Finish the sentence: Back. Latin: the basis of modern European languages ​​of the Romance group. The main causes of the crisis of the Roman Empire: Alienation of the Roman army from the interests of the civilian Roman population.

"The Art of Ancient Rome" - Around 114 B.C. Rome. Over the course of several centuries, the Forum was rebuilt several times. Architecture of Ancient Rome. Presentation of the MHC on the program Danilova 10th grade. Erected by order of the emperor on the site of a hill of the same height. Trajan's column. Roman forum -. The development of the artistic culture of Ancient Rome.

"Architecture of Ancient Rome" - Ancient Rome gave the world many unique architectural monuments. The building is made in the form of a portico. Doric. Despite significant destruction, the Colosseum has survived to our time. In ancient Greece, columns of 3 types were distinguished. Architecture of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Temple of the Parthenon. Ionic.

"Culture of Rome" - Caesar's Basilica - a building intended for court sessions, ceremonial meetings. Come up with a myth involving Roman gods. The Periods of the Emergence of Roman Culture: Trajan's Forum in Rome. Christianity has become the world's leading religion. The Colosseum is a majestic amphitheater where gladiatorial fights took place. Tell about a cultural monument or an outstanding figure of the era.

"Roman Republic" - Plebeians. Other cities. Punic Wars. Roman Republic. Octavian August-emperor (27 BC-14 AD). Carthage was defeated and destroyed. 1. For equality. 1. Dictatorship of Sulla -83-78 years. BC 2. Triumvirate -60-49 years. BC (Pompey, Crassus, Caesar) 3. Dictatorship of Julius Caesar - 49-44 years. BC.

In total there are 19 presentations in the topic

Signs and symbols rule the world, not word and law

Confucius

“Since ancient times, man has been accompanied by symbols, with their help he has tried and is trying to make his ideas visible and recognizable. People still fight and die under emblems and banners that have a symbolic meaning” 1 . Every symbol carries a semantic load by definition. This is especially true of religious and state symbols that carry worldview motives. The coat of arms of the state as a visual symbol directly affects the consciousness, almost “magically” evoking a sense of unity in compatriots, their patriotism. This “magicality” (metaphysical, mythical) of the state emblem makes the latter the object of the closest attention of the ministers of worship, whether they are church hierarchs or Masonic masters. Eventually the coat of arms acquires specific visible features (for example, Christian or anti-Christian) depending on who (the Church or Freemasonry) in a given European state controls spiritual power.

The eagle - the lord of the air - is one of the most unambiguous and universal state symbols, embodying strength, majesty and power 2. The symbol of the Roman Empire (27 BC - 395) since the time of Julius Caesar was the imperial rod with the figure of an eagle - the sacred bird of Jupiter. As you know, the empire, with all its shortcomings, is the best form of government for a multinational and multi-confessional entity. The Roman Empire rightfully remained in ancient times the best European example of this form. Therefore, the coat of arms of the 3rd majestic Roman Empire has forever retained its sacred appeal, demand.

So, a single-headed Roman eagle embodies power, imperial grandeur, a claim to world domination, universal cultural significance. This is true. But that's not all. In the Roman Empire, Jesus Christ was born, who changed the worldview and spiritual world of Europeans for millennia, separating once and for all truth from falsehood, righteousness from sinfulness. The Roman Empire distinguished itself by His crucifixion. And then for another three centuries she persecuted and executed the followers of Christ. The one-headed Roman eagle began to involuntarily personify not only power, greatness and power, but also outright anti-Christianity (theism), manifested primarily by hatred for orthodox Christianity. The single-headed eagle symbolically frees the politics and politicians of the empire from Christian morality. The latter circumstance made the single-headed Roman eagle the most sacredly attractive symbol of European theomachists (primarily Masons), which later became the most popular heraldic brand in the world 4 .

But back to the beginning of the Middle Ages. By the fourth century AD, the Roman Empire consisted of four parts and for a time had four emperors. Having become the sole emperor in 323, Constantine the Great in 330 moved the capital of the empire from Rome to Constantinople (“New Rome” or “Second Rome”) and made Christianity the official religion of the entire Roman Empire. Unlike the pagan single-headed eagle, which symbolizes, among other things, the fight against God, Constantine the Great introduced in 330 a new imperial emblem - a two-headed eagle, which visualized not only the secular power of the emperor (the first head of the eagle), but also the spiritual power of the Church (the second head) 5 . The second head of the eagle symbolizes the moral component of the imperial policy; it, as it were, obliges statesmen to be moral in the Christian understanding of morality. The double-headed eagle becomes forever the binary opposition to the single-headed eagle.

"Second Rome" made all of Europe Christian. Until the 11th century, the Christian Church was one, that is, there was no division into Catholics and Orthodox. But the Western hierarchs of the Church, driven by lust for power and political intrigues, caused a schism by opposing their Roman Church (Catholic) to Constantinople (Orthodox). The West, which fell under the power of the golden calf, gradually became a Christian apostate. By the beginning of the 13th century, there was more gold in Constantinople than in all of Western Europe. The greedy West, at the suggestion of the Venetian merchants and with the blessing of the Pope, treacherously attacks Constantinople, plunders it and brutally destroys the local population. The Byzantine Empire 6 fell in 1204 under the onslaught of the Crusader Knights (essentially professional fighters, killers, fanatically devoted to their Catholic orders and hierarchs) and never truly recovered 7 . As a result of this tragedy, wounds were inflicted on Europe and Christianity, which, as it turned out over time, turned out to be incurable 8 . The crusaders showed themselves by no means pious zealots of the Christian faith, but, on the contrary, greedy, unprincipled and bloodthirsty invaders. In 1204 they dispelled the halo of holiness Catholic Church

1. Coat of arms of the Holy Roman Empire from 962 to 1440

2. Coat of arms of the Roman (Byzantine) Empire

and all Western piety. This was the first, at the level of the global cataclysm, a symbolic attack by the West on the double-headed eagle. Note that the united West of the XII-XIII centuries is associated to a large extent with the Holy Roman Empire, whose coat of arms was a single-headed eagle.

The far-sighted Greeks (the titular ethnic group of the Byzantine Empire), long before the decline of their outstanding empire, which existed for eleven centuries, spiritually and culturally built the entire European civilization, managed to prepare for themselves a truly devoted successor - Russia. The Greeks provided a powerful and extremely talented Russian ethnos with their diploma (Cyril and Methodius), cultural tradition (Theophanes the Greek) and, most importantly, the Orthodox faith. Later, Russia under Ivan III, after the wedding in 1472 with the Greek princess Sophia Palaiologos, adopted the Byzantine coat of arms - the double-headed eagle as a symbol of continuity greatest civilization and Orthodox faith. The imperial symbol in Russia later became fully consistent with its essence. In 1704, Tsar Peter I takes the title of emperor. Russia became a new Orthodox empire, and its capital Moscow became a symbolic "Third Rome".

1. Seal of Ivan III

2. Coat of arms of Peter I

The double-headed eagle again soared over Europe as a symbol of a genuine Christian empire, a political player of the highest European echelon, claiming the succession of European civilization and its new spiritual center.

At the same time, the official process of parting with the Christian tradition began in the West. In France in late XVIII century there are revolutions organized by Freemasonry. Among other things, the revolutions carried an openly anti-Christian worldview. Bonaparte Napoleon, a military genius and an atheist, comes to power. Napoleon controlled the Masonic "Grand Lodge of France", perhaps the most powerful political organization of the time. The rejection of God and His commandments is one of the foundations of the ideology of Bonapartism. Napoleon's morality clearly contradicts the Christian commandments "Do not build yourself an idol ...", "Thou shalt not kill" and, in general, Christian morality. That is why the Russian people, who possessed spiritual vision, saw in Napoleon the prototype of the Antichrist and rightly dubbed him as such. Creating his empire, Napoleon had to decide on its symbol, embodying imperial power, greatness, power and ... theomachism. The Roman single-headed eagle was already such a symbol, which quite logically becomes the coat of arms of Napoleon's empire. The latter liquidated the remaining Western European empires: the Austro-Hungarian and Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, which had double-headed eagles as their emblems. The one-headed eagle of Napoleon metaphysically “cut off” the second heads of the eagles of competing empires, as if trying to consign their spiritual Christian component to oblivion.



It should be noted that the Western European double-headed eagles as symbols were rather a tribute to historical tradition, a claim to the succession of the majestic Byzantium, than a reflection of the Christian spirit. But even such a formal (as if by inertia) Western succession of the Byzantine Empire was disgusting to Napoleon. Everything that concerned the Byzantine Orthodox Empire had to be erased from the memory of generations by the Masons. So, in our time it is easy and simple to find information about all the emperors of Ancient Rome, cultural monuments, philosophers and poets. Cultural Monuments of Ancient (pre-Christian) Greece are also carefully preserved by the West. About the Romans (in translation - the Romans, as the Greeks of Byzantium called themselves), information is practically erased, despite the fact that the "Second Rome" lasted twice as long as the "first" Rome, and by the beginning of the XIII century in Constantinople alone there were more cultural achievements and educational institutions than in all of Western Europe combined. As you can see, "nothing personal", nothing national, only frank atheist motives.

However, in the east of Europe, the last double-headed eagle remained as a coat of arms Russian Empire, which, both in religion and in foreign policy, unshakably remained the devoted successor of Byzantium. A clash of eagles was becoming inevitable. Emperor Napoleon had to put an end to this stronghold of Orthodoxy and state independence. The one-headed eagle was supposed to "deal" with the two-headed, the last imperial, remaining in Europe. Napoleon's troops went to war against Moscow ("Third Rome").



However, Napoleon's project to conquer Russia (including the subordination of the Church to the Pope of Rome) was shattered by the power of the Orthodox Russian spirit, which Napoleon intended to eradicate. The universal battle of eagles ended with the complete victory of the two-headed eagle, for a century discouraged the one-headed predator from measuring strength.

No longer counting on a military victory, the one-headed predator “decides” to use cunning and destroy the two-headed eagle with revolutionary viruses. The plan was a success. The revolutionary "viruses" of 1917 "infected" the double-headed eagle, which "fell ill" for many decades. But metaphysically, he remained alive as long as his carriers were alive - human souls. Joseph Stalin, unexpectedly for the West, began to restore the continuity of the USSR from the Russian Empire. The orders and epaulets of the tsarist army, the concepts of "officer" and "officer honor" returned, the continuity of military history returned, previously destroyed theological seminaries, etc. were allowed. The double-headed eagle began to slowly metaphysically recover, temporarily not showing itself to the world. The Soviet Union more and more began to correspond to the imperial essence of the double-headed eagle. The West saw it. Saw and hated.

Hatred led to the fact that the Anglo-Saxon empire (USA, Great Britain and their vassals) reanimated Germany in order to direct its military power to the destruction of the USSR - the successor to imperial Russia. So in Europe, a new single-headed eagle appeared as a symbol of the newly created Nazi German Empire (Third Reich). Having quickly mastered Europe, Hitler directed the combined European power against the USSR, almost completely repeating the Napoleonic scenario.



Even the concordat (agreement with the Pope), the essence of which is the subordination Orthodox Church Vatican, was almost the same as that of Napoleon. Hitler's project to conquer Soviet Russia, as in the case of Napoleon, was also shattered by the power of the Russian spirit, which remained ineradicably Orthodox.

Again, it was not possible to defeat the force of the successor of the double-headed eagle. Therefore, the West had to repeat the “viral” scenario later. In the fight against Soviet Union this time the liberal "virus" was used. The quasi-empire - the USSR was destroyed by this "virus" in 1991, similar to the result of the "virus injection" of 1917. The collapse of the state led to the emergence of many problems and conflicts, the subordination of the economy and ideology to the world hegemon - the Anglo-Saxon empire. In this collapse, however, one very significant phenomenon occurred: the former Russian coat of arms, the double-headed eagle, was formally restored. He, as if recovering, moving from form to essence, slowly spreading his imperial wings wider and wider, began to more and more demonstrate his proud, independent disposition, his imperial Orthodox essence, forcing the whole world to reckon with him since 2014.

Let's return to the consideration of the world's leading single-headed eagle, what it is now, what is its symbolic load. Masons (the founding fathers of the United States) did not “puzzle” for a long time about what the emblem of the new empire would be, imposing its “ new order»: the single-headed eagle of the Roman Empire remained the only historically attractive symbol, personifying imperial power, greatness, power and theomachism. Freemasons added only some sacred elements to the emblem of this eagle (for example, the eagle holds 13 arrows in one paw, an olive branch with 13 leaves and 13 olives in the other; the star of David is formed by 13 five-pointed stars; on the reverse side of the seal it is stated on Latin is very unambiguous: "Novus Ordo Seclorum" - "New order forever"). The anti-Christian essence of the eagle was immediately manifested: the “New Order” destroyed tens of millions of Indians and brought slaves from Africa. Revolutions in Russia, provoking two world wars, the nuclear bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, color revolutions, Arab terrorism, local wars in Vietnam, Afghanistan, Yugoslavia, Iraq, Libya, Syria, Ukraine - this is an incomplete list of crimes in which the barbaric empire of the one-headed eagle is involved in just the last 100 years. At the same time, the profits and dominance of the Anglo-Saxon empire increased each time, making the latter a world hegemon by the end of the 20th century.



The modern world empire of a single-headed eagle (USA and its vassals) is always barbaric ends and means. Always a sea of ​​blood and human grief in the implementation of their plans. Russia interferes with the absolutely immoral hegemony of the United States, their plans to conquer the world. Today Russia sets an example of a moral foreign policy based not on the right of force (as with the Anglo-Saxons), but on the force of international law. And if so, then the battle of the eagles becomes inevitable again due to their imperial and complete moral incompatibility.

She began, this next death match two eagles 9 . One-headed (USA and vassals) and two-headed (Russia). Between the "New Order Forever" and "Holder of the World's Evil". In the hybrid war unleashed by the US against Russia, the main hope is placed on the ideological "viruses" of liberalism, fascism (as the dictatorship of the oligarchy) and Nazism. It is these “viruses” that are successfully “devouring the body” of Ukraine before our very eyes. "Immunity" for Russia can only be a clear ideology, "sharpened" to fight the information weapons of the enemy, focused on paternal Tradition, forming high morality and patriotism among compatriots. Such is the ideology of a multinational and multi-confessional empire, which establishes the basic law of merciful love.

The double-headed eagle can and must show its irresistible power to the world, once again becoming a symbol of the victory of Christian love over the bloodthirsty god-fighting hatred of the one-headed predator. It has become a good national tradition for Russia to defeat the united West during its next invasion. But for the victory of one military power is not enough, it is necessary to correspond to your sacred symbol - the two-headed eagle, that is, to become a sovereign empire and the spiritual pole of the world again.

Fedor Papayani, expert of the Izborsk Club of Novorossiya, Donetsk

_____________________________

1 Tresidder D. Dictionary of symbol meanings, http://slovo.yaxy.ru/67.html.

2 In the article, we will be interested only in imperial symbols. Eagles as coats of arms of non-imperial states or symbols of a different semantic load are not considered by us.

3 The term "coat of arms" appears at the end of the Middle Ages and comes from a German word meaning inheritance. However, the article uses the concept of "coat of arms" for earlier periods. Although the concept as such did not yet exist, its equivalent semantic symbolic load did exist.

4 Roman Empire. The brand and its heirs,

5 There is a version of historians that in 330, Emperor Constantine the Great introduced a new emblem - a black double-headed eagle on a gold background - as a symbol of the emperor's power over the West and East. Opponents of this version give counter-arguments: firstly, Constantine the Great united four, not two parts of the empire, and, secondly, the division of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern occurred 65 years later, in 395. However, even if we accept this controversial version, it should be recognized that later, with the formation of Christianity in the empire, the symbolism of the eagle changed. The eagle has ceased to be an emblem of only secular power (the first head of an eagle); it has become unequivocally an emblem of spiritual power (the second head of an eagle).

6 Constantine the Great (Flavius ​​Valerius Aurelius Constantine, Constantine I, Constantine the Great, 272-337) from 323 was the sole ruler of the entire Roman Empire. In 395, the division of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern took place. The Western Roman Empire fell in 476, leaving the Eastern Roman Empire as the historical, cultural, and civilizational successor to the Roman Empire for almost ten centuries. The Eastern Roman Empire was referred to by Western historians in the 18th century as the "Byzantine Empire", that is, an empire with the latter name never actually existed; its citizens called their state "Roman (in Greek - Roman) Empire." However, the name "Byzantine Empire" is historically well-established and is therefore used in this article. The imperial rival of the Roman (Byzantine) Empire (395-1453) becomes the "Holy Roman Empire" (962 - 1512), which later changed its name to the "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" (1512-1806) .), covering vast areas of Western Europe. In the Holy Roman Empire, until 1440, a single-headed eagle was used as the coat of arms of the state. Since 1441, it has changed to a double-headed eagle. Later, the double-headed eagle became the coat of arms of the Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires.

7 formally the Byzantine Empire lasted until 1453 and finally fell from the Turkish invasion. But this is only formal, since after the defeat by the crusaders in 1204, the empire was only “the remnants of its former luxury”; military, economic and even spiritual power were not restored.

8 Zaborov M. The Crusaders in the East. http://enoth.org/Crusades2/Zaborov05_13.htm

9 The war of imperial eagles-coats of arms is understood as a symbolic means of expressing ideological, territorial, property and other claims.

The Roman she-wolf is a symbol of the city of Rome, a sculptural image of an animal that feeds the twins Romulus and Remus, who, according to legend, founded Rome. The she-wolf in Rome has long been called the "mother of the Romans", and after the transfer of the statue at the end of the 15th century to the Capitoline Palace, the name "Capitoline she-wolf" (Lupa Capitolina) was fixed.

The Capitoline she-wolf is the main character of the legend of the founding of Rome, which tells of the semi-divine origin of the twin brothers Romulus and Remus.

They were the grandsons of Numitor, ruler of the Trojan-founded city of Alba Longa. His younger brother Amulius, having seized power, dealt with the children of Numitor: he killed his son, and forced his daughter, Rhea Sylvia, to take a vow of celibacy and become a priestess - a vestal. but four years later, Rhea Sylvia gave birth to twin boys from the fertility god Mars.

Enraged Amulius, fearing revenge, ordered the execution of his niece, and drown her children in. The slave fulfilled his order - he carried the babies to the bank of the overflowing river and left the basket there in the hope that the water would catch them and destroy them, but he miscalculated. The water left, the hungry twins screamed, they were heard by a she-wolf who happened to be nearby, licked them and fed them with her milk. She came to look after the children who had taken refuge in the shade of a fig tree until they a shepherd came across, who raised them and gave them names - Romulus and Remus.

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The boys grew up as skilled warriors, but one day, as a result of a battle, they were captured by their grandfather. When their origin was revealed, they helped him regain power in Alba Longa (Alba Longa), and they themselves agreed among themselves to found a city on the Palatine (Palatium) - where the Tiber had once thrown them ashore.

Cave

In support of the legend, in 2007 in Rome, on the Palantine, right under the ruins of the palace, archaeologists found a cave where supposedly there were children fed by a she-wolf.

It has been established that this is the location of the well-known since ancient times temple of Lupercale (Lupercale, from the Latin lupa - she-wolf), dedicated to Romulus and Remus. A monument of antiquity - a grotto with a diameter of 7.5 and a height of 8 meters - was discovered at a depth of 16 meters half-covered with earth. Due to the danger of collapse, research was carried out with the help of probes and video equipment, but after the work, which cost 12 million euros, some sections were opened to visitors. It is this point that is taken as the place of the founding of Rome.

The statue

The statue, cast in bronze, is an image of a standing she-wolf 75 cm high, with a bared mouth, with its front paws resting on the ground. Under her belly, two babies are drawn to the nipples - Romulus and Remus.

The Capitoline she-wolf, but without babies, is mentioned in documents from the most ancient times. It was long believed that it was cast in the 5th century BC. e. Etruscans, then it was installed in Rome as a sign of the unification of the Romans, Sabines and Etruscans. However, the latest research, which was carried out in 2006 by the restorer Anna Maria Carruba, shifted the time of the creation of the statue to the 8th-10th centuries AD.

The figures of twins are obviously cast in a different style and appeared at the nipples of a she-wolf at the end of the 15th century. The sculptor Antonio del Pollaiolo is named as their author.

From the notes of the tenth century, written by the chronicler-monk Benedict, it is known that the Capitoline she-wolf stood in the Lateran Palace at the site of the court. It was not a monument, but rather a deity - the "mother of the Romans", watching the behavior of her children. References to trials and executions "at the she-wolf" are found until the middle of the 15th century. In 1473, Sixtus IV ordered the statue to be moved to, in the Palazzo dei Conservatori (Palazzo dei Conservatori), where it is still located.

Monument and copies

Monument to the she-wolf - a copy of the famous sculpture, mounted on a tall column to the left of the central building of the Capitoline Museum and City Hall. Similar monuments can be found in other places in Rome, as well as around the world:

  • in Pisa (region of Tuscany, Italy) a monument can be found between the leaning tower and the Pisa Cathedral;
  • they are installed in the Latin Quarter of Paris, in Spanish Segovia;
  • in many cities of Romania - here it is a symbol of cultural heritage;
  • near the Olympic Stadium in Tokyo, Japan;
  • next to the memorial to Juscelino Kubitschek in the capital of Brazil, the city of Brasilia;
  • in the USA, where copies of the sculpture, sent by dictator Benito Mussolini, are installed in Eden Park (Cincinnati), Rome (Georgia), and New York.

Symbol of Rome

The she-wolf in Rome is not just a statue or a monument, it is a symbol of the divinity of the origin of the “eternal city”. Therefore, its images are present everywhere, the most ancient can be seen on the coins found during archaeological excavations. The she-wolf is also the symbol of the football club Roma, depicted on the coat of arms.

It is known that Benito Mussolini was a great admirer of the she-wolf. For him, she was a symbol of the desire to revive the Roman Empire, he sent copies of the "mother of the Romans" around the world.

How to get there

The original Capitoline she-wolf is presented in the Palazzo dei Conservatori, in the Capitoline Museum at Piazza del Campidoglio, 1. It is located on the Capitoline Hill next to Piazza Venezia and the Roman Forum (Foro Romano), the nearest station is Colosseo .

  • Official website of the Capitoline Museum: www.museicapitolini.org

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