Under group is understood as a real-life formation in which people are gathered together, united by some common feature, a kind of joint activity, or placed in some kind of identical conditions, in a certain way they are aware of their belonging to this formation. It is within the framework of this second interpretation that social psychology primarily deals with groups.

It is possible to single out some features characteristic of the group as a subject of activity. First of all, this concerns the psychological characteristics of the group, which should include such group formations as group feelings, group composition (or its composition), group structure, group processes, group norms and values, and a system of sanctions.

Psychological characteristics of the group. When analyzing the development of groups in the history of human society, it was found that the main, purely psychological characteristic of a group is the presence of the so-called "we-feelings", that is, a sense of community among its members. Both historically and with respect to each specific group, the appearance of “we-feeling” is preceded by “they-feeling”, i.e., the primary is the feeling foreignness other people and groups. This suggests that universal principle The mental design of the community is the distinction for individuals in the group, a certain formation of "we" in contrast to another formation - "they".

Composition (composition) of the group- a set of characteristics of group members that are important from the point of view of analyzing it as a whole. The composition of the group can be described in different ways depending on whether, for example, the age, professional or social characteristics of the group members are significant in each particular case.

Group structure is determined by the functions that individual members of the group perform, as well as interpersonal relationships in it. There are several types of group structure: the structure of preferences, the structure of "power", the structure of communications.

Group processes include psychological and organizational processes of cohesion (leadership and leadership), the development of the group as a social unity, group pressure, changing relationships, etc.

Group norms- these are certain rules that have been developed by the group, adopted by it, and to which the behavior of its members must obey in order for their joint activities to be possible. Norms perform, thus, a regulatory function in relation to this activity. Values of each group are formed on the basis of the development of a certain attitude to social phenomena, dictated by the place of this group in the system of social relations, its experience in organizing certain activities.

In order to ensure that group members comply with group norms, there are group sanctions. Group sanctions is a system of rewards and punishments for group members by the group as a whole. They often talk about negative group sanctions (rejection, boycott), but it should be considered legitimate to include positive sanctions (respect, encouragement, recognition) in the system of sanctions.

Group classification . First of all, for psychology it is significant to divide groups into conditional and real. Among real groups there are real laboratory groups and real natural groups. In turn, natural groups are subdivided into large and small. Large groups are also divided into large spontaneous groups and organized, long-term ones. Small groups can be of two varieties: emerging groups and groups of more high level development already in place.

Small groups. small group is a small group whose members are united by a common social activities and are in direct personal communication, which is the basis for the emergence of emotional relationships, group norms and group processes. The definition fixes a specific sign of a small group that distinguishes it from large groups: social relations appear here in the form of direct personal contacts.

It can be noted that the lower boundary of the small group is often considered dyad. However, there is another point of view, which believes that the smallest number of members of a small group is not two, but three persons. This is argued by the fact that in the dyad it is impossible to isolate the type of communication that is mediated by joint activities, any communication here acquires an interpersonal character. The presence of a third person in the group changes the system of relationships and introduces activity bases into the communication process.

The upper limit of the small group is also not uniquely defined. If the studied small group should be, first of all, a really existing group and it is considered as a subject of activity, then it is logical not to establish some kind of hard “upper” limit, but to take as such a really existing, given size of the group, dictated by the purpose of joint group activity. .

Types of small groups . Small groups are divided into primary and secondary. Under primary group refers to such groups in which direct contacts between its members are carried out. Secondary- these are those where there are no direct contacts, and various "intermediaries" are used for communication between members, for example, in the form of means of communication. But when such a feature was singled out, the primary groups began to be identified with small groups, and then the classification lost its meaning.

Another division of small groups involves the division of small groups into formal and informal. V formal the group is clearly given all the positions of its members, they are prescribed by group norms, and the roles of all members of the group in the system of subordination to the so-called power structure are strictly distributed. informal groups develop and arise spontaneously, where neither statuses nor roles are prescribed, where there is no given system of relationships along the vertical. An informal group can be created within a formal one, but it can also arise on its own, outside of it.

In reality, it is difficult to isolate strictly formal and strictly informal groups, especially in cases where informal groups arose within the framework of formal ones. Therefore, proposals were born in social psychology that remove this dichotomy. The concepts of “formal” and “informal structure” of a group (or “structure of formal and informal relations”) were introduced, and it was not groups that began to differ, but the type, nature of relations within them.

The third classification distinguishes membership groups and reference groups. Under membership groups those groups in which the individual is really included are considered; in contrast to them reference groups- these are groups in which individuals are not really included, but they accept their norms. Subsequently, two functions of reference groups were identified: comparative and normative; an individual needs a reference group either as a standard for comparing his behavior with it, or for a normative assessment of it.

According to the duration of existence, small groups are divided into temporary and stationary.

According to the level of development, the groups are divided into:

team- a voluntary association of people, characterized by a high level of mediation of interpersonal relations by joint activities and the presence of socially approved goals (for example, a labor collective that has reached socio-psychological maturity).

Corporation- a group that has reached a high level of socio-psychological maturity, but pursuing socially disapproved goals (a highly organized criminal group).

prosocial association is characterized by a low degree of mediation of interpersonal relations by joint activities and the public nature of goals (for example, a newly created study group).

Asocial Association characterized by the antisocial nature of the activity, a low degree of mediation of interpersonal relations by this activity.

diffuse group- a cluster of people who are united only by place and time, there is practically no joint activity (bus passengers).

Small group development . Traditionally, when studying the development of a small group, social psychologists turned to the analysis of its two main spheres of life: business (instrumental) and emotional (expressive). driving force group development is the contradiction between these two areas. There are three main stages of such development: 1) orientation(in a situation, task, relationships between group members, etc.); 2) conflict(between members of a group, a group and its individual members, etc.); 3) dynamic balance(enables the functioning of the group as a whole).

Special consideration requires the question of the mechanisms of group dynamics, of how the psychological development of the group occurs. As such mechanisms, intragroup contradictions, "idiosyncratic credit" and psychological exchange are singled out; G. M. Andreeva considers conformity as the main mechanism.

Contradiction as a group development mechanism has already been mentioned. Possible types of contradictions that stimulate the development of a group include contradictions between the potential of the group and its activities; between the desire of group members for self-realization and tendencies for tighter integration with the group; between the behavior of the leader and the expectations of the group members regarding his behavior.

idiosyncratic loan means a situation where the leader (or other high-status member of the group) is allowed to violate group norms, while group sanctions will be applied to any other member of the group for such a violation. This phenomenon can become a mechanism for changing group norms or forming new ones, with which some authors associate the process of group development.

concept psychological exchange in the most general sense, it can be imagined as an "exchange" of active participation in the life of the group, the realization of group values ​​for a high group status. In other words, status differentiation occurs through the evaluation of individual contributions to the common cause.

Socio-psychological characteristics of the group. These include the presence of a certain structure of a small group, behavior associated with the implementation of group norms, and group cohesion.

It has already been noted that in a small group it is possible to distinguish various types structures depending on the chosen criterion. Formal status structure gives an idea of ​​the relationship of positions in the formal structure of the group. For labor collectives, it coincides with the staffing table.

Structure of preferences expressed in the sociometric statuses of group members. It is often seen as analogous to the group's informal status structure.

Communicative structure characterizes the intra-group positions of individuals depending on the information flows in the group. Features of the communicative structure affect the organizational development of the group and its activities. As a rule, a centralized structure, compared with a decentralized one, promotes the emergence of a leader, organizational development, but hinders the effectiveness of solving complex problems and reduces satisfaction with group membership.

power structure- This is the vertical relative position of individuals, depending on their ability to influence the group. In total, five types of social power can be distinguished: 1) rewarding; 2) coercive; 3) legitimate; 4) reference; 5) expert.

Consequently, it is possible to build different power structures of the group, depending on the type of power under consideration. The real management of the group, as a rule, is carried out simultaneously through different channels.

Another significant characteristic of the established group is behavior, associated with the implementation of group norms. It is rather conditionally possible to single out three areas: 1) the influence of the norms shared by the majority of the members of the group; 2) the influence of norms shared by a minority of group members; 3) deviations in the behavior of individuals from group norms. The first area is associated with manifestations conforming behavior, the second with minority influence, the third - with the phenomenon group pressure.

The concept of "conformity" refers to a change in behavior or attitudes as a result of real or imagined influence of the group. Separate external and internal conformity and negativism. External conformity(compliance) involves changing behavior (or expressing agreement with the group) when disagreeing with it in the morning.

Internal conformity(approval) is characterized by a change in opinion and behavior under the influence of the group.

Negativism(reactance) – the tendency to behave contrary to the requirements of the group.

Consider the following levels of conformity: submission, identification, internalization. Subordination analogous to external conformity, where a person expresses agreement while remaining in disagreement with the group within. Identification involves a deeper acceptance of norms, it occurs when a person accepts group norms due to identification with the group (I am we). Internalization- the deepest level of conformity, involves the internal assimilation of group norms by a person.

There are two possible reasons emergence of conformity: normative and informational impact.

Regulatory Impact is the emergence of conformity out of a desire to meet the expectations of other people, as well as in order to achieve recognition, maintain good relationships or not be rejected.

Information influence associates the emergence of conformity with the acceptance of the judgments of other people, especially in an uncertain situation.

Minority influence boils down to the following: the functioning of the group is possible on the basis of agreement on some fundamental principles. A minority may try to change these principles by undermining consensus. In order to influence the majority, the minority must be consistent, demonstrate self-confidence. The presence of “apostates” from the majority sharply strengthens the position of the minority. In addition, an unusual position and behavior has an attractive force for others, which can also affect the majority.

group pressure- These are the actions of the group aimed at making a member of the group behave in accordance with the norms. Group pressure can be implemented in various ways: through condemnation, downgrading of group status, boycott up to and including exclusion from the group. It performs several important functions in the life of the group: 1) goal-setting - ensures the achievement of the goal; 2) conservation - preserves the group as a whole; 3) constructive - contributes to the development of "group reality"; 4) relational - participates in determining the attitude of group members to the social environment.

The third characteristic of an established group is group cohesion. group cohesion - the totality of all forces acting in a group, forcing a person to maintain his membership in the group and experience positive emotions from membership in it. Cohesion characterizes the degree of attractiveness of the group for its members. A close-knit group is characterized by unity of goals, values, cooperation, friendly atmosphere, genuine interest of group members in each other and a desire to help. The presence in the group of a common goal, the coincidence of individual and group goals, interpersonal sympathy, the presence of an external danger in relation to the group, threats and a number of other factors contribute to the growth of group cohesion. Cohesion is a factor in the effectiveness of the group.

Group performance. The components of the effectiveness of the group are group productivity and satisfaction from membership in the group. Productivity depends on the potential productivity of the group, its size, the structure of communication in the group, the type of task performed, the style of management, the cohesion of the group, etc. Agreement with the distribution of statuses in the group, approaching the goal, the ability to realize one's potential, sympathy in interpersonal relationships and other factors increase satisfaction an individual by a group.

socially-psychological climate is an integral characteristic of the group. socially- psychological climate of the group- a stable mental state of the group, reflecting the characteristics of its life. This is a set of conditions that promote or hinder productive group activity and the comprehensive development of the individual in the group. This is a qualitative characteristic of interpersonal relations in a group, a system of relations between group members to the conditions, nature, content of joint activities, to the leader and other members of the group.

Favorable the socio-psychological climate is characterized by trust, goodwill in relationships, mutual understanding, free expression by group members of their opinions and respect for the opinions of others, constructive criticism, a sense of security, optimism, confidence, satisfaction from group membership. Adverse the socio-psychological climate is characterized by tension in relations between members of the group, conflict, the prevalence of depressed mood, dissatisfaction with membership in the group. A favorable psychological climate is a condition for the effectiveness of the group.

Factors affecting the socio-psychological climate: the nature of interpersonal relationships, the personality of the leader and the style and methods of management implemented by him, psychological compatibility, the presence of microgroups, the nature of the interaction between them, the influence of the external social environment, as well as the physical microclimate, etc.

Psychological compatibility- the ability of group members to perform joint activities. The basis of psychological compatibility is the optimal combination of the psychological characteristics of the participants in the interaction according to the principle of their similarities or complementarity.

Sociometric group structure characterizes the subordination of the positions of individuals in the system of intragroup interpersonal preferences. We are talking about the informal structure of the group, the structure of interpersonal emotional contacts: likes, dislikes, preferences in the group. The concept of the sociometric structure of a group is associated with the name of J. Moreno, the author of the widely known sociometric methodology. The technique is intended for research in a group of interpersonal relationships informal type. It allows you to establish the position of the individual in the group, the presence of microgroups in the structure of the group under study, the presence of conflict, tension in relations, the degree of group cohesion, the motivational structure of relations. Procedurally, sociometric research is carried out by posing indirect questions, answering which the participants make a consistent choice of the members of the group preferred in the situation described by the question. The sociometric status of a person is determined by the number of choices received by him in the group. The most popular and sympathetic are " stars". There are also categories preferred, ignored, isolated and rejected group members.

The elementary parameters of any group include:

The composition of the group (or its composition),

group structure,

group processes,

Group norms and values

system of sanctions.

Composition of the group: can be described differently depending on whether, for example, age, professional or social characteristics of group members are significant in each particular case. A single recipe for describing the composition of a group cannot be given due to the diversity of real groups; in each specific case, it is necessary to start with which real group is chosen as the object of study: a school class, a sports team, or a production team. In other words, we immediately set a certain set of parameters to characterize the composition of the group, depending on the type of activity with which this group is associated. Naturally, the characteristics of large and small social groups differ especially strongly, and they must be studied separately.

Group structure: There are several rather formal features of the group structure, which, however, have been identified mainly in the study of small groups: the structure of preferences, the structure of "power", the structure of communications. However, if we consistently consider the group as a subject of activity, then its structure must be approached accordingly. Apparently, in this case, the most important thing is the analysis of the structure of group activity, which includes a description of the functions of each member of the group in this joint activity. At the same time, a very significant characteristic is the emotional structure of the group - the structure of interpersonal relations, as well as its connection with the functional structure of group activity. In social psychology, the relationship between these two structures is often seen as the relationship between "informal" and "formal" relationships.

Group processes: the list of group processes depends both on the nature of the group and on the point of view adopted by the researcher. If we follow the accepted methodological principle, then the group processes should first of all include those processes that organize the activities of the group, and consider them in the context of the development of the group. A holistic view of the development of a group and the characteristics of group processes has been developed in particular detail in domestic social psychology, which does not exclude a more detailed analysis, when the development of group norms, values, the system of interpersonal relations, etc. is separately studied.

Group norms and values: All group norms are social norms; represent “establishments, models, standards of proper behavior, from the point of view of society as a whole and social groups and their members” (Bobneva, 1978. S.Z). In a narrower sense, group norms are certain rules that are developed by the group, adopted by it, and to which the behavior of its members must obey in order for their joint activities to be possible. Norms perform, thus, a regulatory function in relation to this activity. Group norms are associated with values, since any rules can be formulated only on the basis of acceptance or rejection of some socially significant phenomena (Obozov, 1979, p. 156). The values ​​of each group are formed on the basis of the development of a certain attitude to social phenomena, dictated by the place of this group in the system of social relations, its experience in organizing certain activities.

Another part of the conceptual scheme that is used in group studies concerns the position of the individual in the group as a member. The first of the concepts used here is the concept of "status" or "position", denoting the place of the individual in the system of group life. The concept of “status” finds the widest application in describing the structure of interpersonal relations, for which the sociometric technique is most suitable. But the designation of the individual's status in the group thus obtained is by no means satisfactory. First, because the place of an individual in a group is not determined only by his sociometric status; it is important not only to what extent the individual as a member of the group enjoys the affection of other members of the group, but also how he is perceived in the structure of the activity relations of the group. On that

The question cannot be answered using sociometric methods. Secondly, status is always a certain unity of the characteristics objectively inherent in the individual, which determine his place in the group, and his subjective perception by other members of the group. In the sociometric methodology, there is an attempt to take into account these two components of the status (communicative and gnostic), but at the same time only the components of emotional relations (those that the individual has for other members of the group, and those that others have for him) are assumed. The objective characteristics of the status simply do not figure in this case. And thirdly, when characterizing the status of an individual in a group, it is necessary to take into account the relations of the wider social system in which this group is included - the "status" of the group itself. This circumstance is not indifferent to the specific position of a member of the group. But this third sign is also not taken into account in any way when determining the status of the sociometric method.

The second characteristic of an individual in a group is "role". Usually, a role is defined as a dynamic aspect of status, which is revealed through a list of those real functions that are assigned to the individual by the group, the content of group activity.

An important component of the characteristics of the position of an individual in a group is the system of "group expectations". This term denotes the simple fact that each member of the group not only performs its functions in it, but is also necessarily perceived, evaluated by others.

Group classification:

The American researcher Eubank singled out seven different principles on the basis of which such classifications were built. These principles were the most diverse:

The level of cultural development,

structure type,

Tasks and functions,

The predominant type of contacts in the group,

As the time of the existence of the group,

The principles of its formation,

Principles of accessibility of membership in it and many others.

If, however, we accept the principle of considering real social groups as subjects of social activity, then, obviously, another principle of classification is required here. It should be based on the sociological classification of groups according to their place in the system of social relations. But before giving such a classification, it is necessary to bring into a system those uses of the concept of a group, which were discussed above.

First of all, for social psychology, the division of groups into conditional and real ones is significant. She focuses her research on real groups + real laboratory and natural groups.

Socio-psychological analysis is possible with respect to both varieties of real groups, however highest value have real natural groups identified in sociological analysis. In turn, these natural groups are subdivided into the so-called "large" and "small" groups. Small groups are a habitable field of social psychology. As for large groups, the question of their study is much more complicated and requires special consideration. It is important to emphasize that these large groups are also unequally represented in social psychology: some of them have a solid tradition of research (these are mainly large, unorganized, spontaneously arisen groups, the term “group” itself is very arbitrary in relation to which), while others are organized , long-existing groups - like classes, nations, are much less represented in social psychology as an object of study.

Small groups can be subdivided into two varieties: emerging groups, already set by external social requirements, but not yet united by joint activity in the full sense of the word, and groups of a higher level of development that have already taken shape.

In social psychology, which studies society as a whole, there are separate areas. The social psychology of groups is a branch of science that studies the development and classification of small communities. It considers the individual as part of the formation, which exerts and is influenced within the community.

Concept and tasks

In modern psychology, the concept of "social group" is a set of individuals who have similar features, perform one type of activity, and are aware of themselves as members of a community. The group has 3 main qualities:

• mandatory interaction between participants;
• unity of goals for which the group was created;
• all members have a sign that is unique to this community.

The social psychology of groups studies the process of group formation, its types, structure and influence on the individual. The task of the industry is to assess and predict the development of the group, identify the characteristics of interaction, the main criteria. Throughout life, a person simultaneously consists of several groups and often moves from one to another. This is due to a change in activity or status: for example, a student becomes a student, a worker becomes a pensioner. In this regard, we can single out the main task of the social psychology of groups - classification according to certain criteria.

The history of development

Social psychology began to study groups only at the beginning of the 20th century. Prior to this, the object of study was the individual, not society. We examined in depth the features of perception, attitudes, interpersonal interaction, but did not try to evaluate a person as an integral part of the formation.

Some psychologists have completely denied the existence of groups as objects of study. This approach in social psychology was called personalistic. But in parallel with it, another method of study developed - sociological. Its supporters argued that one cannot fully understand the motives of human behavior if one studies him only as an individual. A group, as an association of people, inevitably influences a person and this cannot be ignored.

The study of group processes developed more actively in the USA. Under the leadership of K. Levin, research was carried out in the laboratory that studied the dynamics, types of leadership, cohesion and other categories that determine the behavior of formations.

Already in the middle of the 20th century, personalistic and sociological psychology joined forces. This happened under the influence of state structures interested in the emergence of new effective methods management of industrial and military organizations. Interest in the study of various formations only increased by the end of the 20th century. Now research methods continue to expand and improve.

The main forms and features of communities

There are many types of social formations. For the correct classification of groups in psychology, it is necessary to single out the exact criteria by which formations are evaluated.

According to the nature of the interaction, 2 groups are distinguished:

• primary - relatively stable, with constant close interaction between members, aimed at the socialization of the individual;
• secondary - numerous, with a predominantly formal type of interaction, aimed at achieving a specific goal.

By type of interaction, communities are:

• formal - there is a legal status with clearly defined standards of relationships, the purpose of the activity and a fixed hierarchy;
• informal - appear spontaneously, do not have official regulations, quickly disintegrate.

The communities in which the individual is included are called ingroups (family, educational or work team, ethnic minority). Communities in which an individual cannot or does not want to be included (another religious community, a strange family, a different age category) are called outgroups.

By the number of people and the form of interpersonal relationships, small and large groups are distinguished. Small is always not numerous (two people united by a common goal are already considered a group) and has a number of unchanged characteristics:

• high stability of the composition (new members rarely join, often to replace those who left);
• participants have similar values ​​and moral standards;
• interpersonal relationships are intense, stable;
• a sense of belonging to a community is developed, causes approval and pride among the participants;
• a clear division of roles, the leader is an unconditional authority.

A large group is distinguished by its numerous composition and purpose. It is created to achieve a certain result, but there is no interaction between the participants that can ensure the quick achievement of the goal.

The highest form of the group, providing optimal conditions for the development and work of individuals, is the team. Signs that distinguish the team from other formations: the coincidence of the goals of the individual and society, the unity of principles and value orientations.

Separation according to significant features distinguishes real and nominal groups. Real formations include formations that have socially significant features:

• gender - male or female;
• ethnos - European, Asian, Hispanic;
• age - child, teenager, adult, elderly;
• profession - teacher, doctor, businessman;
• marital status - married, divorced, bachelor;
• place of residence - city, town, village;
• income level - wealthy, poor, rich.

The nominal ones include formations that are specially allocated for research (passengers who are entitled to reduced fares, students with scholarships, mothers of large families). A person has the right to join such a formation and leave it at any time. For example, disability benefits can be withdrawn, the unemployed can get a job.

All groups, regardless of type, have mandatory qualities:

The presence of these qualities distinguishes the group from the crowd - a spontaneous formation in which people do not have stable connections and the need for communication.

Mandatory stages of development and roles of individuals within formations

A group is not formed immediately after people are brought together. Stages of socio-psychological maturity:

Each person has his own role in the formation, which he performs consciously or simply obeys the imposed model of behavior. There are 3 types of roles:

The task of the leader is to monitor the fulfillment of roles, encourage relationships that are useful for the community, and stop the activities of disorganizers in time.

Functions and conditions for normal development

The community has a number of features that affect each member:

If the functions are not fulfilled, the community cannot function, quickly disintegrates. Normally, it should develop as a community, provide conditions for the development of individuals.

Interpersonal relations of individuals within the community

Within the community, different types of relationships are established between individuals:

• official - based on the structure, prescribed rules;
• informal - arise as a result of personal sympathies;
• business - arise in the performance of official duties;
• rational - are based on an objective assessment of other participants;
• emotional - subjective assessment decides everything.

Community management governs the relationship between the leader and subordinates. With positive dynamics, subordinates recognize the authority of the leader. If negative, they tend to protest, create conditions for the emergence of an informal leader.

What factors complicate the process of studying small communities?

In social psychology, the problem of research is related to the inability to identify clear criteria and characteristics. Often one has to choose as an object of study only one type of community - small ones. The study of internal processes is difficult, they are considered in isolation from the nature of joint activities.

It is difficult to classify small communities, they are too numerous. This does not allow to highlight similar, different features.

Formation research methods

To study communities, the method of sociometry is mainly used. It was invented and developed by psychologist D. Moreno. The main task of sociometry is to identify the participant's status, to study formal and informal relations. Also, surveys, observation, and experiment are used to study communities. Research results are combined to provide a more objective picture.

Useful video

The social psychology of groups is described in more detail in the video:

Each of us spends a significant part of our time in various groups - at home, at work or in educational institution, at a party, at the lessons of the sports section, among fellow travelers in the compartment of a railway car, etc. People in groups lead family life, raise children, work and rest. At the same time, they enter into certain contacts with other people, interact with them in one way or another - help each other or, conversely, compete. Sometimes people in a group experience the same mental states, and this affects their activity in a certain way.

Various kinds of groups have long been the object of socio-psychological analysis. However, it should be noted that not every collection of individuals can be called a group in the strict sense of the term. Thus, a few people crowded on the street and watching the consequences of a traffic accident are not a group, but an aggregation. In this case, this is a combination of people who happened to be here at the moment. These people do not have a common goal, there is no interaction between them, in a minute or two they will disperse forever, and nothing will connect them. However, if these people begin to take joint action to help the victims of the accident, then this combination of people will become a group for a short time. Thus, in order for any set of individuals to be considered a group in the socio-psychological sense, it is necessary, as in the dramatic works of classicism, first of all, the presence of three unities - place, time and action. In this case, the action must be joint. It is also important that interacting people consider themselves members of this group. Such identification (identification) of each of them with their group leads eventually to the formation of a sense of "we" as opposed to "them" - other groups. So, a group can be called a set of individuals interacting with each other to achieve common goals and realizing their belonging to this set.

Often the term "group" is used in a different, broader sense. This is typical for socio-demographic research and solving problems of social management. In these cases, it is constantly necessary to identify various conditional groups of the population, for example, university students, the unemployed, the disabled, etc. However, it is more appropriate to call such groups social categories. We will further consider the group in the socio-psychological meaning of this term. This does not exclude the possibility that the belonging of a number of members of a group to a certain category may affect the functioning of this group as a whole.

All the variety of human groups in society can be divided, first of all, into primary and secondary groups, as the American psychologist C. Cooley did at the beginning of the century. Primary are contact groups in which interaction is carried out, as they say, "face to face" and their members are united by emotional closeness. C. Cooley called the family the primary group, because this is the first group for any person into which he falls. The family plays a primary role in the socialization of the individual. Later, psychologists began to call primary groups all those characterized by interpersonal interaction and solidarity. As examples of such groups, one can also name a group of friends or a narrow circle of work colleagues. Belonging to one or another primary group in itself is a value for its members and does not pursue any other goals.

Secondary groups are characterized by the impersonal interaction of their members, which is due to one or another official organizational relationship. Such groups are opposite in essence to the primary ones. The significance of members of secondary groups for each other is determined not on the basis of their individual properties, but due to the ability to perform certain functions. People are united in secondary groups, first of all, by the desire to obtain any economic, political or other benefits. Examples of such groups are a production organization, a trade union, a political party.

True, it sometimes happens that a person finds in the secondary group exactly what he was deprived of in the primary group. Based on his observations, the American psychologist S. Verba concludes that the person's appeal to active participation in any activity political party may be a kind of "response" of the individual to the weakening of attachment between members of his family. At the same time, the forces that motivated the individual to such participation are not so much political as psychological.

Groups are often divided into formal and informal. This division is based on the nature of the structure of the group. The group structure refers to the relatively constant combination of interpersonal relationships that exists in it. The structure of the group can be determined by both external and internal factors. Sometimes the nature of the relationship between members of the group is determined by the decisions of another group or some person from outside. External regulation determines the formal (official) structure of the group. In accordance with such regulation, the members of the group must interact with each other (with the other in a certain, prescribed manner. If we take, for example, a production team, then the nature of interaction in it is determined both by the features of the technological process and by administrative and legal regulations. This is recorded in official instructions, orders and other normative acts. The formal structure is created in order to ensure the fulfillment of certain official tasks. If any individual falls out of it, then the vacant place is taken by another - of the same specialty and qualifications. The connections that make up the formal structure are impersonal. So, a group based on such connections is called a formal group.

If the formal structure of the group is determined by external factors, then the informal one, on the contrary, is determined by internal ones. The informal structure is a consequence of the personal desire of individuals for certain contacts and is more flexible than the formal one. People enter into informal relationships with each other in order to satisfy some of their needs - for communication, association, affection, friendship, getting help, dominance, respect, etc. Informal ties arise and develop spontaneously as individuals interact with each other. On the basis of such connections, informal groups are formed, for example, a company of friends or like-minded people. In such groups, people spend time together, play, have parties, play sports, fish, hunt.

The emergence of informal groups can be facilitated by the spatial proximity of individuals. So, teenagers living in the same yard or nearby houses can form an informal group because they have common interests and problems. Membership of individuals in the same formal groups facilitates informal contacts between them and also contributes to the formation of informal groups. Workers who perform the same tasks in the same shop feel psychologically close because they have so much in common. This leads to the emergence of solidarity and corresponding informal relationships.

Why do people form groups and often value their membership in them very much? It is obvious that groups ensure the satisfaction of those or other needs of society as a whole and of each of its members individually. The American sociologist N. Smelser identifies the following functions of groups: 1) socialization; 2) instrumental; 3) expressive; 4) supporting.

The role of various groups in the process of socialization of the individual has already been considered earlier. Man, like other highly organized primates, can ensure his own survival and upbringing of the younger generations only in a group. It is in a group, primarily in a family, that an individual acquires a number of necessary social skills and abilities. The primary groups in which the child resides provide the basis for his inclusion in a system of wider social ties.

The instrumental function of the group is to carry out one or another joint activity of people.

Many activities are not possible alone. A conveyor team, a football team, a rescue squad, a choreographic ensemble are all examples of groups that play an instrumental role in society. In addition, participation in such groups, as a rule, provides a person with material means of life, provides him with opportunities for self-realization.

The expressive role of groups is to satisfy people's needs for approval, respect, and trust. This role is often filled by primary and informal groups. Being a member of them, the individual enjoys communicating with people psychologically close to him.

The supporting function of the group is manifested in the fact that people tend to unite in difficult situations for them. They seek psychological support in the group to help alleviate bad feelings. A vivid example of this is the experiments of the American psychologist S. Shakhter. First, the subjects, who were students of one of the universities, were divided into two groups. The members of the first of these were informed that they would be subjected to a comparatively strong electric shock. The members of the second group were told that they were going to get a very light, ticklish electric shock. Further, all subjects were asked how they prefer to wait for the start of the experiment: alone or together with other participants? It was found that about two-thirds of the subjects in the first group expressed a desire to be with others. In the second group, on the contrary, about two-thirds of the subjects said that they did not care how they expected the experiment to begin - alone or with others. So, when individuals are faced with some kind of threatening factor, the group can provide them with a sense of psychological support or comfort. Miner came to this conclusion. In the face of danger, people tend to psychologically approach each other.

One of the important factors that determine the properties of the group is its size, number. Most researchers, speaking about the size of the group, begin with a dyad - a connection of two persons. A different point of view is expressed by the Polish sociologist J. Shchepansky, who believes that a group includes at least three persons. Without going into a discussion, we note that the dyad, indeed, is a specific human formation.

On the one hand, interpersonal ties in a dyad can be very strong. Take, for example, lovers, friends. Compared to other groups, belonging to a dyad causes a much higher degree of satisfaction among its members. On the other hand, the dyad as a group is also characterized by particular fragility. Most groups continue to exist if one of their members is deprived of the dyad, in which case it breaks up.

Relationships in a triad - a group of three people - are also distinguished by their specificity. Each of the members of the triad can act in two directions: contribute to the strengthening of this group or, conversely, strive to separate it. It has been experimentally found that in the triad there is a tendency to unite two members of the group against the third.

When classifying various groups according to their size, special attention is usually paid to the so-called small groups. Such groups consist of a small number of individuals (from two to ten) with a common goal and differentiated role responsibilities. This goal stems from common interests group members who also usually show satisfaction with their interaction. This interaction is carried out on the basis of relatively frequent direct ("face to face") contacts.

Often the terms "small group" and "primary group" are used in the same sense. However, there is a difference between them. The basis for the use of the term "small group" is its size. The primary group is characterized by a particularly high degree of group membership, a sense of camaraderie. This is always characteristic of a small group. Thus, we can say that all primary groups are small, but not all small groups are primary.

Any group has one or another structure - a certain set of relatively stable relationships between its members. The features of these relationships determine the entire life of the group, including the productivity and satisfaction of its members. What factors influence the structure of different groups?

First of all, the goals of the group should be stated. Take, for example, the crew of an airplane. In order for the aircraft to reach its destination, it is necessary that each of the crew members come into contact with each of the other crew members. Thus, in accordance with the purpose of the group, there is a need for close integration of the actions of all its members.

On the contrary, in groups of a different type, the nature of the relationships looks different. So, in any administrative department, employees may have specific duties, in the performance of which they are independent of each other and coordinate their activities only with the head of the department. To achieve a common goal, the exchange of information between ordinary members of the group in this case is not necessary (although, of course, the presence of informal comradely contacts can favorably influence the activity of this group).

Let us further note the role of such a factor as the degree of group autonomy. For example, all functional relationships between the members of the mass production team are clearly defined in advance. Workers cannot make changes to the existing structure of these links without the consent of management. The degree of autonomy of such a group is insignificant. On the contrary, members of the film crew, whose degree of autonomy is high, usually determine the nature of intra-group relationships themselves. Therefore, the structure of such a group is more flexible.

Among the significant factors influencing the structure of the group are also socio-demographic, social and psychological characteristics of its members. A high degree of group homogeneity in terms of gender, age, education, skill level and the presence on this basis of common interests, needs, value orientations, etc., is a good basis for the emergence of close ties between employees. A group heterogeneous according to the indicated characteristics usually breaks up into several informal groups, each of which is relatively homogeneous in its composition.

For example, in one production team, men, women, the elderly, young people, football fans, gardening enthusiasts, etc. can unite in separate informal groups. The structure of such a working group will be significantly different from the structure of another group consisting only of men of approximately the same age, with the same level of qualification and, moreover, supporting the same football club. In this case, there are all prerequisites for the emergence of permanent and strong contacts between members of the group. On the basis of such a community, a sense of cohesion, a sense of "we" is born.

The structure of a group with a high sense of "we" is characterized by closer interrelationships of its members compared to the structure of a group that is not distinguished by such unity. In the latter case, contacts are limited and mostly official. At the same time, informal ties are less significant and do not unite all members of this group.

Studies show that the degree of cohesion of a group depends on how belonging to it satisfies the needs of its members. Factors that bind a person to a group can be an interesting job, a consciousness of its social importance, the prestige of the group, the presence of friends, etc.

Finally, note that the structure of a group also depends on its size. Observations show that ties between members of groups consisting of 5-10 people are usually stronger than in large ones. The structure of small groups is more often formed under the influence of informal relationships. Here, if necessary, it is easier to organize interchangeability, the alternation of functions between its members. On the other hand, permanent informal contacts of all members of a group consisting of 30-40 people are hardly possible. Within such a group, several informal subgroups most often arise. Thus, the structure of the group as a whole, as it grows, will increasingly be characterized by formal relationships.

Social psychology: lecture notes Melnikova Nadezhda Anatolyevna

LECTURE No. 10. Definition and characteristics of social groups

social group- any set of people, considered from the point of view of their community.

All the life of an individual in society is carried out through a variety of social groups that differ significantly from each other.

The broadest understanding of the social group is associated with the concepts commonality and aggregates.

The presence of a common goal makes people capable of concerted action, although such consistency exists only in a certain aspect of their behavior.

Individuals belong to the group not in their entire personality, but only in those aspects that are associated with the social roles performed in this group.

No person can function fully in only one social group.

No group can fully provide the conditions for self-realization of the individual in various aspects.

A social group is an important form of bringing people together in the process of activity and communication.

Goals, general norms, sanctions, group rituals, relationships, joint activities, material environment, and so on - these phenomena act as special components of a social group that determine the measure of its stability.

Less stable social groups are not the main ones in a person's life, although he can stay in them for a long time.

Family, school class, friends and professional team- the most significant social groups for the individual.

Due to their stability, they influence the nature of social development and social adaptation of the subject.

The main features of a social group:

1) availability integral psychological characteristics, such as public opinion, psychological climate, group norms, group interests, and so on, which are formed with the emergence and development of the group;

2) existence the main parameters of the group as a whole Keywords: composition and structure, group processes, group norms and sanctions.

Composition is a set of characteristics of group members that are important from the point of view of its analysis as a whole. Group structure considered from the point of view of the functions that individual members of the group perform, as well as from the point of view of interpersonal relations in it.

TO group processes include dynamic, i.e., changing indicators of the group as a social process of relations;

3) ability of individuals to coordinate actions.

This feature is key, since it is consent that provides the necessary commonality, unity of actions aimed at achieving the goal;

4) group pressure, encourages a person to behave in a certain way and in accordance with the expectations of others.

The individual result of such pressure is conformity as a quality of a person in a normative or non-normative version.

Psychologists record the presence of changes in the views and behavior of individual participants due to their belonging to a group.

Existence a large number various social groups led to the development of various typologies of groups.

The main criteria for identifying typologies can be: the number of people in a group, social status, level of development, etc.

According to their social status, groups are divided into formal and informal, by the immediacy of relationships - on real and nominal, in importance - on reference and membership groups.

Typologies are distinguished by the number of people and by the level of development.

By the number of members allocate large groups, small groups and microgroups.

The composition of microgroups includes three or two people (respectively, triads and dyads).

In social psychology, they are usually viewed through interpersonal relationships of an informal structure.

The main connecting factors of these groups are feelings of friendship, love, sympathy, a common cause.

Large groups are studied from the point of view of mass phenomena of the psyche and integral psychological phenomena that arise in the crowd, audience, and public.

small group- a group whose members personally know each other.

All significant groups in human life are small groups.

The leading factors that unite the group are joint activities and a common goal.

A small group is often referred to as primary, since it is the closest environment for the formation of a personality that affects the needs, social activity and psychological state of a person.

The significance of a small group is determined by the aspirations of the individual.

If he is guided by the norms, values ​​and opinions of the members of the group, then it regards itself as with a standard that defines the norms.

The group in this case is the source of social attitudes and value orientations of the subject.

Focusing on the reference group, a person evaluates himself, his actions, lifestyle and ideals.

The reference group has two main social functions: normative and comparative.

According to the level of development, unorganized or poorly organized groups are distinguished, with low index cohesion ( associations, diffuse groups) and high-level development groups ( collectives).

There is no unifying joint activity in the association that requires an appropriate organization, however, there is a certain level of cohesion, determined by joint communication individuals.

In a diffuse group, there is no cohesion, no organization, no joint activity.

An important indicator of the level of development of the group is the value-oriented unity, determined by the degree of coincidence of the positions and assessments of its members in relation to general activities and important group values.

Groups are considered from the point of view of their attitude to society: positive - prosocial, negative - asocial.

Any collective is a well-organized pro-social group, since it is focused on the benefit of society.

A well-organized asocial group is called a corporation.

Corporation is usually characterized by isolation, rigid centralization and authoritarian management, opposing their narrow interests to public ones.

The problem of individualism and collectivism is connected with the problem of personal autonomy of a person in a group.

In the process of socialization and education, the subject develops the characterological quality of conformity or nonconformism.

Conformity- this is the dependence of a person on the group, its influence on the decisions he makes.

This dependence has different degrees expressiveness - from the complete subordination of the individual to the group to personal autonomy.

Conformity can manifest itself not only within a particular group, but also within society, when its pressure reaches such a high degree that people are afraid to show their individuality and change their way of thinking in accordance with social standards.

The weak influence of group pressure is defined as nonconformism.

Nonconformism has nothing to do with negativism (on the contrary conformism), since negativism manifests itself in a person's desire to necessarily act contrary to the rules, and in this sense it depends on group norms.

A nonconformist has his own independent view of the phenomena of the surrounding world and trusts his opinion.

At the same time, he respects the opinions of other people, but he will act in accordance with his ideas about reality.

The coexistence and interaction of independent and free individuals, nonconformists, is a complex social phenomenon that is not so rare, because the higher the level of culture of a person, the more capable he is of being a nonconformist.

It is nonconformists who are able to realize in their social relations the most productive interaction strategies are cooperation and compromise, avoiding unproductive coping strategies and competition.

A relatively adequate understanding of the phenomena of the surrounding world generates correct judgments and conclusions, which are confirmed by the social experience of the subject.

A. Maslow associated the development of nonconformity with such qualities as honesty and courage, since being ready for an independent position from others is a very difficult behavior that requires courage.

Most people are more or less dependent on group pressure and influence.

The degree of this dependence varies in different situations. It is possible to identify objective factors that determine the level of conformity of a person in a group.

First, this characteristics of the individual who is subjected to group pressure: gender, age, nationality, intelligence, anxiety, suggestibility, etc.

Secondly, this group characteristics, which is a source of pressure: the size of the group, the degree of unanimity, the presence of group members who deviate from the general opinion.

The third factor determining the level of conformity is features of the relationship between the individual and the group(status, degree of adherence to the group, the level of its reference).

And finally task content, facing the individual and the group, cannot but affect the level of his conformity.

How more people interested in performing a common task, the more he will be subject to group pressure.

Phenomenon moral and psychological climate of the group does not occur immediately.

At the first stage of team development, a formal structure prevails: employees communicate in accordance with official and behavioral stereotypes, look closely at each other, true feelings are most often hidden, goals and methods of work are not discussed together, collective work is weak.

At the second stage, there is a reassessment of the personal and business qualities of the leader, an opinion is formed about colleagues, the process of forming groupings within the team begins, and a struggle for leadership is possible.

Disagreements are discussed more openly, attempts are made to improve relationships in the team.

Finally, the “grinding in” ends, the informal structure is clearly visible, the team reaches a certain degree of coordination of the actions of its members.

The resulting group cohesion can be positive, negative, or conformist.

In the first case, the group reproduces the best business and moral qualities of its members, people are proud of their belonging to this team, the problems that arise are solved in a businesslike, initiative and creative way.

In the second case most of the energy of the team is spent on participating in conflicts between various groups, informal and formal leaders, clarifying relations with other units.

Production problems seem to fade into the background.

The conformist orientation is characterized by a purely external, ostentatious interest of employees in the results of their work. labor activity, indifference to collective efforts.

The sphere of interests of employees is outside the team: family, social and political activities, personal problems, etc.

Socio-psychological climate working group essentially depends on its structure.

The structure of the team, i.e., the really existing set of relationships between the members of the group that arises in the process of joint activity, is studied at two levels - formal and informal.

If formal structure associated with the official status of group members, orderly service relations, then informal structure is built on the basis of relationships psychological characteristics team members.

The formation of an informal structure is determined by the presence of both objective and subjective factors.

The former include the possibility of contacts between the members of the group due to the nature and schedule of work, as well as the optimal composition of the group in terms of quantity and age and sex structure, which allows satisfying the need for interpersonal communication.

Subjective factors depend on the personality of the manager, the individual characteristics of employees. The ability to rally a team, psychological compatibility, satisfaction with working conditions, one's status and role affect spontaneously formed friendly ties, mutual likes and dislikes.

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