Basic concepts and definitions

Agnosticism - (from the Greek agnostos - unknown) - an extreme expression of epistemological pessimism, a doctrine that denies the possibility of reliable knowledge of the essence of material and ideal systems, the laws of nature and society by a single form of knowledge. Agnosticism plays a certain role in limiting the claims of science to comprehensive knowledge, to the ultimate truth, since it substantiates the fundamental impossibility of knowledge of transcendental entities by science, thereby acting as anti-scientism. Since the time of I. Kant, agnosticism has been based on the recognition of the active role of the subject in the process of cognition.

Axiology - (from the Greek axia - value and logos - concept, knowledge ), a special philosophical discipline, a part of philosophy that studies and analyzes the nature of values, their origin, development, change of value orientations, their cause. It begins to take shape at the end of the 18th century, although questions of values ​​have been raised throughout the history of philosophy since antiquity. The term "axiology" itself was introduced by the French philosopher P. Lapi at the beginning of the 20th century Axiological are philosophical disciplines - ethics and aesthetics. Axiology considers the highest spiritual values: freedom, life, death, immortality, the meaning of being, the beautiful and the ugly, good and evil, their significance in human activity.

Anthropology (philosophical) - (from the Greek. anthropos - man and logos - knowledge), is used in a broad and narrow sense. In a broad sense - these are philosophical views on the nature and essence of man, who acts as the starting point and the central object of philosophical analysis. Includes various conceptions of personality that have developed in the history of philosophy, starting with Socrates, Confucius and Buddhism. Anthropological problems occupied a significant part in the teachings of Socrates and Plato, ancient stoicism, Christian philosophy, in the Renaissance, in German classical philosophy (Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, Feuerbach), in neo-Kantianism, in irrationalist philosophy of the 19th - 20th centuries. ( Nietzsche, Schopenhauer, existentialism and personalism), as well as in Russian philosophy ( V.Soloviev, N.Berdyaev, S.Frank, V.Rozanov and etc.). Philosophical anthropology believes that the doctrine of man is the ultimate goal of any philosophy and its main task.

In a narrow sense - philosophical anthropology- a direction in philosophy of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the founders of which can be considered a German philosopher and scientist Max Scheler and French anthropologist Teilhard de Chardin. The direction did not work out, and the problem of man was included in general philosophical knowledge.

anthropocentrism (from Greek antropos - man, lat. centrium - center) - worldview, according to which man is the center and the highest goal of the universe. This view is directly connected with the theological doctrine of the presence in the world of objective non-human goals and some higher expediency. In ancient philosophy, anthropocentrism formulated Socrates and his followers, seeing the highest destiny of man in acquiring the highest virtue. Anthropocentrism was also characteristic of representatives patristics. During the period of domination of medieval scholasticism, the center of the worldview shifted mainly to God, and a theory appeared according to which people were created instead of fallen angels and should take their place. In the Renaissance, anthropocentric issues occupied a leading place in the worldview of humanists. They develop the doctrine of the independent dignity of man, created for his own sake ( Pico della Mirandola). A person, from their point of view, has universal opportunities to create and improve himself, has a moral freedom of choice, either to realize these opportunities in earthly existence and immortalize his name, having risen to the level of God, or to descend to the level of an animal, without realizing his virtue.

Being - a category that fixes the basis of existence (for the world as a whole or for any kind of existing); in the structure of philosophical knowledge it is the subject of ontology (see. Ontology); in the theory of knowledge is considered as basic for any possible picture of the world and for all other categories. The first attempts to resolve the problem of the source of existence of what is - in mythologies, religions, in the natural philosophy of the first philosophers. Philosophy as such aims first of all to find the true (as opposed to the seeming) B. and its comprehension (or participation in it). Scientific philosophy follows the path of defining B. and its place in the structure of knowledge, and also identifies levels and types of B. as an objective existence.

Epistemology - (from the Greek gnosis - knowledge and logos - teaching) doctrine of knowledge. A branch of philosophy that studies the nature of cognition and its possibilities, the relationship of knowledge to reality, and identifies the conditions for the reliability and truth of knowledge. Although the term "theory of knowledge" itself was introduced into philosophy relatively recently (in 1854) by the Scottish philosopher J. Ferrer, the doctrine of knowledge began to be developed since antiquity. As a philosophical doctrine, the theory of knowledge studies the universal in human cognitive activity, regardless of the specifics of this activity. The specificity of this or that type of cognition is of interest to epistemology only from the ideological side and in terms of the achievement and existence of truth.

The main problem in epistemology is the problem of truth, all other problems, one way or another, are considered through the prism of this problem: what is truth? Is it possible to achieve true knowledge? What are the mechanisms and ways to achieve true knowledge? Are there limits to human cognitive abilities?

Epistemology is internally connected with ontological and axiological issues. On the one hand, as a general doctrine of being, ontology also acts as a prerequisite for the theory of knowledge (all concepts of epistemology have an ontological justification and, in this sense, also have an ontological content). Thus, the solution of the problem of truth inevitably begins with the definition of the ontological status of the category "truth": is it possible for the existence of true knowledge, what should be understood by the word "truth"? On the other hand, the very ontological content of the categories and problems of epistemology is established in the process of cognition and epistemological reflection. Approximately the same is the case with the unity of epistemology and axiology. Comprehending the world, a person simultaneously evaluates it, “trying it on” for himself, building one or another system of values ​​that determine human behavior in this world. At the same time, knowledge itself is a certain value of human existence, and itself is directed and developed according to certain personal or social settings.

Gnoseological optimism – direction in epistemology, insisting on the limitless possibilities of human cognitive abilities, believing that there are no fundamental obstacles to a person's knowledge of the world around him, the essence of objects and himself. Supporters of this direction insist on the existence of objective truth and the ability of a person to achieve it. There are, of course, certain historical difficulties, i.e. - of a temporary nature, but developing humanity will eventually overcome them. There are quite a lot of options for optimistic epistemology, and their ontological foundations also differ. In teaching Plato the possibility of unconditional cognition of the essence of things is based on the postulation of the unified nature of the soul and ideal essences in a certain habitat of the heavenly region, in which souls contemplate the ideal world. After moving into human bodies, souls forget what they saw in a different reality. The essence of Plato's theory of knowledge lies in the thesis " Knowledge is remembrance”, that is, souls recall what they saw before, but forgot in earthly existence. Contribute to the process of "remembering" leading questions, things, situations. In exercises G. Hegel And K. Marx, despite the fact that the first belongs to the objective-idealistic, and the second - to the materialistic directions, the ontological basis of epistemological optimism is the idea of ​​rationality (i.e. logic, regularity) of the world. The rationality of the world can certainly be known by human rationality, that is, by reason.

Gnoseological pessimism – representatives of this trend in the theory of knowledge question the possibility of achieving objectively true knowledge and proceed from the idea of ​​the limitations of human cognitive abilities. The extreme expression of epistemological pessimism is agnosticism. G.p. continues the line of ancient skepticism, doubting the reliability of truth, making the truth of knowledge dependent on the conditions of the cognitive process. Modern epistemological pessimism believes that the world is irrationally arranged, there are no universal laws in it, randomness, the subjectivity of the process of cognition dominate; human existence is also irrational. In this way, G.p. limits the cognitive abilities of a person by obstacles of a fundamental nature.

Civil society - the semantic formulation of this concept occurs in the era of the formation of bourgeois relations in Europe. And if we trace the etymology of the word " civil", then as its synonym could be proposed -" bourgeois". The word "civilian" comes from the Church Slavonic "citizen", which in modern Russian corresponds to "city dweller". In ancient Russian, the word “place” was used in the meaning of “city”, and its inhabitant was called “philistine”. In Western European languages, the corresponding terms originated from the old German "burg" - city, German - "burgher", French - "bourgeois". Thus, civil society was originally understood as a special urban way of life, different from the rural (peasant-feudal) patriarchal way of life. IN patriarchal society, based on kinship, personal dependence, the authority of ancestors and leaders, human life was completely subordinate to the rhythms of nature, the vagaries of the weather, the whims of feudal lords and the will of sovereigns. Basic unit civil society from the first stages of its inception acted independent individual who is able to make decisions and freely show his will in choosing the type of activity, in the way of spending leisure time, following his mindset and the dictates of conscience. The formation of freedom and independence of the townspeople was ensured by their right to private property, which was not only a source of income independent of the state, but was protected by municipal laws from the manifestation of arbitrary unilateral regulation by state authorities.

It is believed that the term "civil society" was first used in the 16th century. in one of the French commentaries on "Politics" Aristotle. Beginning with Hobbes, philosophers-enlighteners associated with this concept a kind of social ideal - the result of overcoming the inhuman primitive state of "the war of all against all" on the basis of " social contract» free, civilized citizens about the observance of their natural rights. With the development of developed bourgeois relations, the term "civil society" began to be actively used in political and legal treatises in order to single out and cover with a single connection the entire set of non-political spiritual and economic relations society. A detailed development of the question of the opposition of the state and civil society belongs to Hegel, who understood civil society as a set of corporations, communities, estates based on special needs and the labor that mediates them. Contrasting general (political) the lives of their citizens private (civil), he saw the basis of the latter in the variety of material interests of individuals and in their right to own property, from which they benefit by their labor. At the same time, Hegel assigned the state a decisive role in granting the corresponding rights and opportunities.

Today, civil society is understood as the sphereself-manifestations of free individuals and voluntarily formed associations and organizations of citizens (these can be unions of entrepreneurs, trade unions, public organizations, interest clubs, etc.), whose activities are protected by the necessary laws from direct interference by the state and its bodies. At present, the concept of "civil society" has not lost its former meaning and former relevance.

In our country, the importance of civil society in Lately has increased significantly, since its formation is associated with the possibility of creating the best conditions for the implementation of personal initiative, internal energy, and the active will of individuals who, uniting in appropriate public organizations, are able to limit the manifestation of administrative and bureaucratic arbitrariness on the part of state bodies and even prevent the possibility of degeneration of state power into a dictatorship. The formation of a developed civil society is inextricably linked with the implementation of the idea rule of law.

Determinism (from lat. Determino - I determine) - philosophical doctrine of the objective regular relationship and interdependence of the phenomena of the world. The central core of determinism is the position on the existence of causality, i.e. such a connection of phenomena in which one phenomenon (cause) under well-defined conditions necessarily generates, produces another phenomenon (effect). Modern determinism presupposes the existence of various forms of the interconnection of phenomena, many of which are expressed in the form of relationships that do not have a directly causal nature, i.e. not directly containing the moments of generation, production of one by the other, and often of a probabilistic nature.

Dialectical approach to the interpretation of being – cognitive attitude based on the principle of universal interaction or universal connection, the principle of universal variability and the principle of inconsistency of being. The principle of universal connection states that there are no absolutely isolated objects of reality. The principle of universal variability implies that all objects of reality, in fact, are processes. Everything changes, there are no absolutely immutable objects. The principle of inconsistency of being characterizes, first of all, the internal inconsistency of all objects and processes. Thanks to contradictions, they are capable of self-development.

When reading philosophical works, one should not forget that the terms "dialectical", "dialectic" in different historical and cultural epochs were filled with different meanings. So, initially, in ancient Greece, dialectics (Greek dialektike - the art of conversation) denoted: 1) the ability to conduct a dialogue through questions and answers; 2) the art of classifying concepts, dividing things into genera and species.

Dialectic idealistic – the doctrine of universal development, the basis of which is the development of the spirit. In the form of a coherent theoretical system, idealistic dialectics is presented, first of all, in philosophy G. Hegel. For Hegel, dialectics is, on the one hand, “the use in science of a regularity contained in the nature of thinking,” on the other hand, dialectics is “this regularity itself.” Dialectics, therefore, is a doctrine that underlies everything as a truly spiritual reality, and at the same time - a movement of human thinking. Nature and spirit are nothing but stages in the development of the absolute - the divine logos, identical to the universe. From the standpoint of idealistic dialectics, the law of moving thinking is also the law of the moving world. The system of idealistic dialectics founded by Hegel (despite its complexity and criticism by many thinkers) had a huge impact on the worldview of both professional philosophers and, in general, representatives of the educated strata of the universal cultural community of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. Such popularity of the Hegelian dialectical system is primarily associated with the approach to understanding history presented in it. The history of mankind, from the point of view of Hegel and his followers, cannot develop as a set of random events, since it is a manifestation of the "world spirit" that develops strictly logically and naturally. In history there is a certain order, regularity, i.e. "intelligence". Hegelian historicism includes two fundamental principles: 1) recognition of the substantiality of history - the presence in it as a fundamental substance of reason, which has infinite power, content and form; 2) approval of the integrity of the historical process and its teleological nature, the definition of the ultimate goal world history as an awareness of the spirit of its freedom.

Dialectic materialistic – the doctrine of universal development, the basis of which is the development of matter. Materialistic dialectics in its most developed form is represented in Marxism. Materialistic dialectics, according to its supporters, is both a philosophical theory of being and a means of critically revolutionary transformation of reality. For K. Marx and his followers, the dialectical materialists, the vision of dialectics as an internal pattern of economic development is of particular importance. Rejecting the idealistic content of philosophy G. Hegel but keeping her method, K. Marx And F.Engels developed their dialectics on the basis of a materialistic understanding of the historical process and the process of the development of knowledge. If the works of Marx are more devoted to the development of a dialectical interpretation of social development, then Engels, in his philosophy of nature, sought to prove that nature (and not only society, history) is subject to dialectical development. The doctrine of the dialectic of nature founded by Engels is highly controversial, since many modern natural philosophers and scientists consider the idea of ​​the dialectical nature of natural processes to be speculative, exclusively speculative and unscientific. Their main objections are that the materialist dialectic of nature blurs the distinction between nature and society (between object and subject) and is inconsistent with modern experimental natural science.

Dialectical-materialistic conception of truth – d.m.(Marxist) concept- one of the varieties of correspondent truth. Chief in d.m. concepts is the understanding of truth as objective: truth is not constructed according to the will and desire of people, but is determined by the content of the reflected object, which determines its objectivity. Truth - this is an adequate reflection of the object by the cognizing subject, reproducing the cognized object as it exists outside and independently of consciousness. A characteristic feature of truth is the presence of objective and subjective sides in it. Truth, by definition, is in the subject, but it is also outside the subject. Truth is subjective, in the sense that it does not exist apart from man and humanity. Truth is objective in the sense that the content of human knowledge does not depend on the will and desires of the subject, does not depend either on man or on humanity. Along with the recognition of the objectivity of truth in d.m. concepts The problem of truth also has another side: can human representations expressing objective truth express it at once, entirely, unconditionally, absolutely, or only approximately, relatively?

Absolute truth is understood as such kind of knowledge, which is identical to its subject and therefore cannot be refuted with the further development of knowledge.. In other words, absolute truth is complete, exhaustive knowledge about the subject of knowledge. . Relative truth is incomplete knowledge about the same subject.

Absolute and relative truth are in dialectical unity. With the further development of knowledge, human ideas about the world around us deepen, refine, and improve. Therefore, scientific truths are relative in the sense that they do not provide complete, exhaustive knowledge about the area of ​​subjects being studied. At the same time, each relative truth signifies a step forward in the cognition of absolute truth and contains elements of absolute truth. There is no impassable line between absolute and relative truth. From the sum of relative truths, absolute truth is added.

The truth or falsity of certain assumptions cannot be established unless the conditions under which they are formulated are specified. Objective truth is always concrete, since it must be based on taking into account and generalizing the specific conditions for the existence of a particular phenomenon (place, time, etc.). Therefore, there are no abstract truths.

discursive - (from sublat. discursus - reasoning, argument) - form of indirect knowledge, a way of obtaining knowledge by reasoning, logical conclusion. The discursive differs from intuition in that each step of the inference can be explained, reproduced, double-checked. The intuitive and the discursive are in a dialectical connection: intuitive guesses, knowledge, necessarily require proof, argumentation; discursive knowledge prepares the ground for new intuitive breakthroughs in knowledge.

presocratic philosophy. Pre-Socratics - Greek philosophers before Socrates (6-5 centuries BC). The texts that have survived from them are collected under the general title "Fragments of the Pre-Socratics" by the German scholar H. Diels. The main object of attention among the pre-Socratics - space- was conceived as consisting of ordinary natural sensual elements: earth, air, water, fire, ether, mutually passing into each other. The earliest representatives are the Ionian natural philosophers: one of them, Thales of Miletus (6th century BC), has been considered the first philosopher and the first cosmologist since the time of Aristotle; as well as Anaximander, Anaximenes and others. The Eleatics follow - a school that studied the philosophy of being (Xenophanes, Parmenides, Zeno and others (5th century BC)) Simultaneously with this school there was a school of Pythagoras, which studied harmony, , numbers as essential principles of being. Pythagoras first called the world "Cosmos" (Greek kosmos - an organized, ordered world, kosma - decoration) - due to the order and harmony prevailing in it. It is useful to remember that the very concept of "world" was perceived by the Greeks in different ways: they distinguished between the "inhabited world" (ecumene, ecumene) and "the world as a single, universal, all-encompassing system" (universum).

An independent prominent role in the pre-Socratic period was played by Heraclitus of Ephesus (6-5 centuries BC), who taught that the world was not created by anyone, either from gods or from people, but always was, is and will be eternally living fire, naturally flammable and naturally extinguished. The world is represented by Heraclitus in perpetual motion, change, in opposites. The great loners are Empedocles and Anaxagoras, who taught that the whole world and its diversity of things is only a confluence and division, a connection and a separation of immutable elements that do not arise and do not disappear. Pre-Socratic cosmology receives its logical conclusion in the teachings of Democritus and his semi-legendary predecessor Leucippus, the founders of atomistic ideas about the structure of being: everything is atoms and emptiness.

Spirituality - a complex, unambiguously undefined concept, derived from the term "spirit". Spirit, therefore, spirituality is a reality that is not reducible to the material, material, perceptible by the senses.. This is a supersensible, ideal (including expressed in ideas) education. Spirituality - a specifically human quality that characterizes the position of value consciousness. Short: spirituality, its content, its orientation is one or another system of values. In relation to the individual, spirituality reflects the result of the union of two realities: on the one hand, the human spirit in its historical concreteness, and on the other, the soul of a particular individual. The spirituality of a particular person is a component of the movement of the soul, its life, its sensitivity and fullness, and, at the same time, that ideal reality (which does not contain a grain of material), which goes beyond personal existence and is called spirit. Orienting a person with values, spirituality creates an ethically gifted person, it elevates the soul and is itself the result of a morally exalted soul, because in the true sense of the word spiritual it means - disinterested, uncomplicated by any mercantile interest. Spirituality is characterized by freedom, creativity, sublime motives, intellectualism, moral strength, activity that cannot be reduced only to the satisfaction of natural needs, the cultivation of these natural needs. Spirituality is a universal essential characteristic, it is inseparable from the concepts of "man" and "personality".

Idealism (from lat. idea - idea) - a view that defines objective reality as an idea, spirit, mind, considering even matter as a form of manifestation of the spirit. This philosophical direction proceeds from the primacy spiritual, mental, mental and secondary material, natural, physical.

Basic forms of idealism - objective and subjective idealism. Objective idealism takes the universal spirit, supra-individual consciousness as the basis of being.. A striking example of this approach is the philosophy G. Hegel. Subjective idealism interprets reality as a product of the individual's spiritual creativity.. Representatives of classical subjective idealism are such well-known thinkers as J. Berkeley, I. Fichte. The extreme form of subjective idealism is solipsism(from lat. solus - the only one and ipse - himself). Being a solipsist, a person with certainty can only speak about the existence of his own "I", since he does not exclude the possibility that the objective world (including other people) exists only in his mind. Despite the obvious absurdity of such a view of the world (according to A. Schopenhauer, the extreme solipsist can only be found in an insane asylum), logically refute solipsism (found, for example, in the concept D. Yuma), despite numerous attempts, so far none of the philosophers has succeeded.

Ideology (as a concept and concepts formed on its basis) arises approximately in last third 18th century in a critical period for Europe: in the bowels of feudalism, a new layer of people strengthens its position. As has always been the case in human history, sooner or later social groups that play an important role in the economy begin to claim a leading role in politics, the right to govern society, and power. These new forces, as it were, take responsibility for social reconstruction, seeking support from the majority of members of society. Thus, ideology arises as an expression of the political interests of certain social groups. But the claims for political dominance of some social groups always come up against the same claims of other forces. To a society placed in a situation of choice, the opposing sides must prove (or impose) their rights to power.

The absolute idea is the concept of Hegelian philosophy, which includes both substance and subject, denoting the universe in its completeness, unconditionality and universality.

Averroism is a trend in Western European medieval Aristotelianism, dating back to the views of the 12th century Arab philosopher Ibn Rushd (in the Latin tradition Averroes). A peculiar form of substantiation of philosophical knowledge independent of revelation and theology was the Averian theory of two truths.

Agnosticism (from Greek - inaccessible to knowledge) - philosophy. a doctrine according to which the question of the truth of knowledge of the reality surrounding a person cannot be finally resolved. The term was introduced by the English naturalist T. Huxley in 1869 to designate a philosophical position that limits the scope of philosophy's competence to the framework of "positive" knowledge.

Academy (Platonic) - founded by Plato in 85 BC. Lasted six centuries. Its name comes from the name of the mythical hero Academ, after whom the garden near Athens was named. The Academy was headed by a sholarch, who was elected from among its members. Members of the Academy largely voluntarily limited themselves to meat-eating, carnal love, and sleep. They were engaged in the development of such disciplines as philosophy, astronomy, natural science, geometry, the special role of which was emphasized in the motto of the Academy: “Let not a geometer enter!”

Philosophical axiology - philosophical theory of values ​​(see value)

Accident (from lat. case) is a philosophical concept meaning accidental, insignificant, opposite to substantial, i.e. essential. For the first time this concept is found in the works of Aristotle.

Allegory (Greek allegory) is a concept close to the concept of "symbol". This is an allegory, a detailed assimilation, enshrined in cultural tradition.

Analysis (from the Greek. Dismemberment) - in the theory of knowledge, the procedure for the mental dismemberment of a phenomenon, process, object. Its opposite is synthesis. This is the first stage of research, when the theorist moves from general description object or phenomenon to the characteristics of its structure and properties.

Analytical philosophy is a trend in Western philosophy of the 20th century, which considers philosophy to be exclusively the use of linguistic means and expressions, interpreted as a true source of philosophical problems. There are two directions in analytical philosophy: linguistic philosophy and philosophy of logical analysis. The philosophy of logical analysis, which uses the apparatus of modern mathematical logic, represents the line of scientism in modern philosophy, while linguistic philosophy, which rejects logical formalization as the main method of analysis, opposes the cult of scientific knowledge and defends a “natural” attitude to the world.

Anthropocentrism is a worldview according to which man is placed in the center of the universe, and God is on the periphery.

Antinomy (from the Greek contradiction of the law to itself) is one of the concepts of Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. Antinomies, according to Kant, arise when trying to think of the world as a whole. Contradictions arise from the fact that there is an attempt by our mind to extrapolate the concepts of the absolute and infinite, applicable only to the world of "things in themselves", to the world of experience and phenomena.

Apeiron (Greek infinite) is a term of ancient Greek philosophy, meaning infinite, the absence of internal boundaries. It was first used in the 6th century. BC e. representative of the Miletus philosophical school Anaximander.

Aporia (from Greek there is no way out) is an intractable problem associated with the contradiction between the data of experience and their mental analysis. The most famous are the aporias of the representative of the ancient Greek philosophical school in the city of Elea - Zeno "Dichotomy", "Achilles and the tortoise", "Arrow", etc.

Apology - justification, defense, defensive speech at the trial, "Apology of Socrates" - a work of Plato

Apologetics is the work of the defenders of the Christian doctrine, singled out in a separate period in the development of Christian philosophy

A posteriori and a priori (lat. from what follows and precedes) - a posteriori is knowledge obtained from experience, and a priori is knowledge obtained independently of experience. They are found in Descartes and Leibniz, most often used by Kant. A priori, according to Kant, is only the form, the way of organizing knowledge. Filled with a posteriori content, the a priori form gives scientific knowledge the character of universality and necessity.

Atman - the concept of ancient Indian philosophy and religion, a synonym for the individual soul

Ataraxia (Greek equanimity) is the concept of the philosophy of Epicurus, the ideal state of mind to which a person should strive. It is achieved by getting rid of the fear of the gods and death.

Brahman (Sanskrit) - in ancient Indian religious speculation, the highest objective reality, the impersonal absolute spirituality from which the world arises with all that is in it.

The unconscious is the key concept of the Freudian philosophy, meaning the totality of mental processes, operations and states that are not represented in the mind of the subject.

Being is a philosophical category denoting the entire existing reality. The key concept of philosophy. It was put forward by the Greek pre-Socratics, some of whom considered it as a single, motionless, self-sufficient and self-identical (Parmenides), others - as a permanent formation (Heraclitus). They distinguished between being according to truth and according to opinion, i.e. the ideal essence of being and its real existence.

Varna is a closed social estate

Voluntarism is a direction in philosophy, whose supporters considered the will to be the ultimate basis of being.

Will is the ability to choose a goal, activity and internal efforts necessary for its implementation. The key concept of Schopenhauer's philosophy, for which will is the ultimate basis of being.

"Thing in itself" is one of the basic concepts of Kant's philosophy, according to which theoretical knowledge is possible only with respect to phenomena, but not with respect to their unknowable basis, rationally conceivable objects. Adequate translation from German "thing in itself"

Hermeneutics (from Greek I interpret) is a theory of text interpretation. In ancient Greek philosophy - the art of understanding, among the Neoplatonists - the interpretation of the works of Homer, in the Christian tradition - the art of interpreting the Bible. Modern direction Western philosophy, the main representatives of which are Betty, Gadamer, Ricœur.

Hylozoism (from the Greek words matter and life) is a term introduced in the 17th century. to designate natural-philosophical ideas and concepts that denied the boundary between living and non-living, and considered life as an immanent property of matter in general.

Epistemology (from Greek I know and teaching) is a theory of knowledge that studies the laws and categories of the transition from ignorance to knowledge.

Humanism (from Latin human) - in the narrow sense of the word - the philosophical movement of the Renaissance, in the broad sense - a historically developing system of views that recognizes justice, equality, humanity as the norm of relations between people and considers the good of man and his right to development, freedom and happiness is a criterion for evaluating social institutions.

Tao is the way of development of all things in the world

Taoism is the national religion of Ancient China, which remains a living religion; philosophical school of ancient China

Deduction (from Latin inference) is a concept denoting the process of logical inference, the transition from the general to the particular. The term was first used by Boethius, but the concept of deduction as a proof of a given sentence through a syllogism was introduced by Aristotle.

Deism (from lat. god) is a concept. Opposing theism, which is based on the idea of ​​divine providence, the constant connection between man and God. According to deism, God created the world, but after that he does not interfere in its processes and events. The Englishman Lord Cherberry (XVII century) is considered the founder of deism, Voltaire, Kant, Lomonosov were deists.

Determinism (from Latin I define) is a philosophical doctrine based on the position of the existence of causality, that is, such a connection of phenomena in which one phenomenon (cause) necessarily gives rise to another (consequence).

Dualism (from Lat. two) is a philosophical doctrine that recognizes two principles as equal in rights: ideal and material. opposed to monism.

Dialectics (from the Greek art of conversing, arguing) is the doctrine of the most general regular connections and formation, the development of being and cognition, and the method of thinking based on this doctrine.

Naturalness is the concept of Taoism, which is used to characterize the Tao.

Idealism is a general designation of philosophical teachings that assert that consciousness, thinking, mental, spiritual are primary, fundamental, and matter, nature, physical are secondary, derivative, dependent, conditioned. Not to be confused with the word "ideal". In the philosophical sense, idealism in the ethical field means the denial of the conditioning of moral consciousness by social being and the recognition of its primacy.

Introvertive and extravertive (from Latin intro - inside, extra - outside, outside and verto - turn, turn) - turned inward and turned outward, a psychological characteristic of two types of personality: directed respectively to the inner world of thoughts and experiences, self-deepened, and directed to the external world and activities in it, characterized by a predominant interest in external objects. The concepts were introduced by C.G. Jung.

Immanent (from lat. abiding in something) is a concept that means this or that property inherent in an object or phenomenon.

Yin and yang (Chinese, lit. - dark and light) are categories of Chinese philosophy that express the idea of ​​the universal dualism of the world: passive and active, soft and hard, internal and external, female and male, earthly and heavenly.

Induction (from lat. Guidance) is a logical conclusion from single data to a general conclusion. Induction is the opposite of deduction. Induction is complete when all similar cases are considered to obtain a general conclusion, and incomplete when it is not possible to consider all similar cases.

Individualism (French individualizme) is a type of worldview, the essence of which is ultimately the absolutization of the position of an individual in his opposition to society, and not to any particular social system, but to society in general, the world as a whole.

Intelligible (from Latin intelligible), supersensible - a philosophical term denoting an object that is comprehended only by the mind and not accessible to sensory perception. Such objects in the history of philosophy were the ideas of Plato, incorporeal entities perceived by the mind. In Kant, “things in themselves”, noumena, which can be thought but cannot be known, are intelligible.

Intuition (from Latin I look closely) is the ability to comprehend the truth through its direct discretion without substantiation with the help of evidence. For different philosophers in the history of philosophy, this concept included different content: intuition as a form of direct intellectual knowledge in Descartes; as an instinct - in Bergson, as an unconscious first principle of creativity - in Freud.

Irrationalism (from the Latin "Irrationalis" - unreasonable unconscious) is a direction of philosophy in which the cognitive power of the mind is limited or completely denied. The essence of being is thus understood as inaccessible to reason, fundamentally different from it. Most often, subjective-idealistic teachings belong to irrationalism, for example, the philosophy of life (Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, Bergson), existentialism (Sartre, Camus, Heidegger, etc.).

Categories (from the Greek. statement) - extremely general philosophical concepts that reflect the most significant connections and relationships between reality and cognition. The first categories arose in the philosophical teachings of antiquity, and their authors tried to use these categories to identify the principles of being: being, idea, essence, quantity, quality, relation, etc.

The categorical imperative (from Latin imperativus) is a term introduced by Kant in the Critique of Practical Reason and denoting the basic law of his ethics. The main meaning of which is the absolutization of the moral behavior of a person who sees in another person always an end and never a means.

Karma (Sanskrit - action, deed, lot) - the law of retribution, one of the central concepts of Hindu philosophy, complementing the doctrine of rebirth.

Cosmocentrism is a worldview according to which the cosmos is thought of as a structurally organized and ordered whole, and man as a part of this world, as a microcosm.

Conceptualism (from Lat. conceptus - concept) is a philosophical doctrine, which, without attributing independent ontological reality to general concepts, at the same time claims that they reproduce similar signs of individual things that are united in the human mind. Pierre Abelard argued that in single objects there is something in common, on the basis of which a concept arises, expressed by a word. John Locke explained the origin of universals, general concepts by the activity of the mind.

Creationism (from lat. creatio - creation) is a religious doctrine about the creation of the world by God from nothing. It is typical for theistic religions - Judaism, Christianity, Islam.

Culture (from Latin cultura - cultivation, upbringing, education, development, veneration) is a specific way of organizing and developing human life, represented in the products of material and spiritual labor, in the system of social norms and institutions, in spiritual values, in the totality of people's attitudes towards nature, to each other and to ourselves. There are over 500 definitions for this word.

Cosmos - translated from ancient Greek means "order". Space or order in ancient philosophy was opposed to Chaos as disorder, displacement.

Cosmology is the study of the origin of the world, the process of its formation, which led to its current state.

Cosmogenesis is the process of formation and formation of the world.

Mayevtika (from the Greek midwifery art) - this is how Socrates called his method, who saw his task in the process of discussion, posing more and more new questions, to encourage his interlocutors to find, “give birth” the truth themselves. Socrates believed that, helping the birth of truth in other people, he does in the moral field what his midwife did.

Materialism is a direction in philosophy that affirms the primacy of matter, nature and the secondary nature of consciousness, thinking.

Methodology is a system of principles and methods for organizing and constructing theoretical and practical activities, as well as the doctrine of this system.

Meditation (from Latin I think) is a mental action aimed at bringing the human psyche into a state of deep concentration. There is a cult, religious-philosophical, psychotherapeutic, didactic, meditative practice. In ancient philosophy, meditation acted as a necessary prerequisite for theoretical thinking. Big role meditation plays in the schools of modern psychoanalysis, which aim at the integration of the personality.

Metaphysics (from Greek after physics) is the doctrine of supersensible principles and principles of being. The term was introduced by the systematizer of the works of Aristotle Andronicus of Rhodes in the 1st century. BC. In the history of philosophy long time used as a synonym for philosophy.

Moksha - liberation from samsara

Microcosm - "small cosmos", i.e. man, was considered in ancient philosophy as an analogue of a large cosmos - the macrocosm, i.e. the entire universe.

Worldview is a system of ideas about the world and about a person’s place in it, about a person’s attitude to the reality around him and to himself, as well as the basic life positions and attitudes of people, their beliefs, ideals, principles of knowledge and activity, determined by these ideas, value orientations.

Monism is a philosophical doctrine that recognizes the existence of only one principle of being. All consistent materialists (Democritus, Diderot, Holbach, Marx) and all consistent idealists (Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, Hegel) are monists.

Science is a special kind of activity with the aim of obtaining and producing knowledge; a body of knowledge (the process of cognition) that meets certain criteria; social institution, i.e. a set of organizations that occupy an independent place in the social structure and serve the performance of relevant social functions.

Naturphilosophy (from Latin natura - nature) is the philosophy of nature, a speculative interpretation of nature, considered in its entirety.

The non-action principle is wu-wei, the principle of an inactive attitude towards the world as opposed to Western European activism.

Nominalism (from the Latin name) is a philosophical doctrine that denies the ontological knowledge of general concepts. Proponents of nominalism argue that general concepts-universals exist only in thinking and do not exist in reality. Having arisen in the ancient Greek philosophy of the Cynics and Stoics, nominalism received its specific development in the Middle Ages, when its main representatives were Duns Scotus, Ockham. In modern times, the nominalists were Hobbes and, to some extent, Locke.

Noumenon (Greek) - the concept of idealistic philosophy, denoting an intelligible essence, an object of intellectual contemplation, in contrast to a phenomenon as an object of sensual contemplation. The totality of noumena forms an intelligible world.

Occasionalism (from lat. case) is a radical solution to Descartes' dualistic formulation of the question of the relationship between soul and body. The author of occasionalism Malebranche (1638 - 1716) understood the interaction of body and spirit as the result of a continuous "miracle" - the direct intervention of a deity in each specific case.

Ontology (from the Greek, being and doctrine) is a branch of philosophy that studies the fundamental principles of being, the most general entities and categories of being. Often the concept of ontology is identified with the concept of metaphysics. The term first appeared in 1613 in the "Philosophical Lexicon" by R. Roklenius.

Objective idealism is a trend in philosophy in which a certain ideal entity that exists objectively, i.e., is recognized as the origin of being. outside and independently of human consciousness (God, Absolute, Idea, World Mind, etc.)

Pantheism (Greek everything and God) is a philosophical doctrine that identifies the world and God. The term was introduced almost simultaneously by ideological opponents, the English philosopher J. Toland (1705) and the Dutch theologian J. Fai (1709). However, we meet with the content of this concept much earlier. Pantheistic tendencies manifested themselves especially clearly in the work of Renaissance thinkers such as N. Kuzansky, D. Bruno, T. Campanella.

Paradigm (from the Greek example, sample) is a model for setting a research problem and a model for solving it.

Patristics is the teaching of the Holy Fathers of the Christian Church.

Prolegomena (from the Greek introduction) is an explanatory introduction aimed at introducing the methods and tasks of this science. The philosophical meaning of this term was given by Kant with his work “Prolegomena to any future metaphysics that might appear as a science”. For Kant, prolegomena are a guide to determining the nature of philosophical knowledge.

Pluralism is a philosophical doctrine that recognizes the existence of many (more than two) principles of being. Pluralism was mainly found in philosophy ancient world, for example, Empedocles recognized as primary principles four elements (Earth, Fire, Water, Air) and two forces (Love and Enmity).

Polysemantics - ambiguity.

Rationalism (from Latin mind) is a philosophical trend that recognizes the mind as the basis of knowledge. The rationalistic tradition dates back to ancient Greece, from the time of Parmenides, who distinguished between knowledge “in truth” (obtained through reason) and knowledge “according to” (obtained through sensory perception). However, the very term "rationalism" began to be used only in the 19th century.

Reduction (lat. return to the previous state) is a term denoting a process that leads to a simplification of the structure of an object, as well as a methodological technique for reducing any data to simpler, original principles. Special meaning this term has in Husserl's phenomenology.

Relativism (from lat. relativus - relative) is a methodological principle, consisting in the metaphysical absolutization of relativity and conditionality of the content of knowledge.

Reflection (from lat. reflection) - reflection, comprehension and awareness of oneself, a substantive examination of knowledge itself, a critical analysis of its content and methods of cognition; the activity of self-knowledge, revealing the structure and specifics of the spiritual world of man.

Ritual is one of the forms of symbolic action, expressing the connection of the subject with the system of social relations and values ​​and devoid of any utilitarian and inherent value.

Samsara (Sanskrit - wandering, circulation) is one of the main concepts of Indian philosophy and religion, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism. Goes back to the original animistic beliefs. The essence is in the endless rebirth of the soul.

Self-consciousness - consciousness directed at itself, while consciousness is not identified with the "I".

Sensualism (from Latin feeling) is a philosophical direction in which feelings are the main source of reliable knowledge. In contrast to rationalism, sensationalism derives the entire content of knowledge from the activity of the sense organs. Sensualism is close to empiricism, which considers sensory experience the only source of reliable knowledge.

A syllogism is a form of deductive reasoning in which a conclusion of the same logical structure follows from two propositions.

System (from Greek - a whole made up of parts, connection) - a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other, which forms a definite integrity, unity.

Skepticism (from the Greek. Investigating) is a philosophical trend that questions the possibility of knowing objective reality. The direction was founded by the ancient Greek philosopher Pyrrho in the 4th century. BC. Skeptics rejected the existence of the causes of phenomena, movement and emergence. For them, appearance was the only criterion of truth.

Speculative (from Latin I contemplate) is a type of theoretical knowledge that is derived without resorting to experience with the help of reflection and is aimed at comprehending the foundations of science and culture. Speculative knowledge is a historically determined way of substantiating and building philosophy. The idea of ​​the speculative nature of philosophy served as a norm for asserting the sovereignty of philosophical knowledge and its inability to be reduced to either ordinary or special scientific knowledge.

Stoicism is a school of ancient Greek philosophy, named after the portico (standing) in Athens, founded by Zeno of Kition around 300 BC. e. The leading place in this philosophy belongs to ethics, based on natural philosophy and logic.

Substance (lat. something underlying) is a reality viewed from the side of its internal unity. A limiting foundation that allows one to reduce a variety to something relatively stable, self-existing. The term is associated with the name of Boethius.

Scholasticism (from the Greek school) is a type of philosophy that is characterized by the combination of dogmatic premises with a rationalistic methodology and a special interest in formal logical problems. This type of philosophy was dominant in Western Europe during the Middle Ages.

Scientism (from Latin science) is a worldview position based on the idea of ​​scientific knowledge as the highest cultural value and sufficient condition human orientation in the world. The ideal for scientism is not all scientific knowledge, but primarily the results and methods of natural science knowledge. Scientism became established in Western culture with the development of the Scientific Revolution in the late 19th century.

Subjective idealism is a trend in philosophy in which human consciousness, the human "I" is recognized as the beginning of being.

Thesis (from the Greek. assertion) - in Hegel's philosophy, the starting point in the development process, which, together with antithesis and synthesis, constitutes a triad.

Theology - (from the Greek god and doctrine, word) - the doctrine of God, a set of religious doctrines about the essence and action of God, built in the forms of an idealistic worldview based on texts accepted as divine revelation.

Teleology (from the Greek result and doctrine) is the doctrine of purpose and expediency. Postulates the target type of causality - for what this or that natural process is performed. A characteristic feature of teleology is the anthropomorphization of natural processes.

Theodicy (from the Greek god and justice) is a designation of a philosophical doctrine that tries to reconcile the idea of ​​"good" divine control with the presence of world evil, to justify this control in the face of the dark sides of being. The term was introduced by Leibniz in 1710 in the treatise Theodicy.

Theocentrism is a worldview that places God at the center of the universe.

Thomism (from lat. Thomas) is a direction in scholasticism and theology of Catholicism, associated with the influence of Thomas Aquinas. Thomism is characterized by the desire to combine an orthodox position with respect for the rights of reason and common sense.

Transcendental (from lat. Going beyond) - a term of Kant's philosophy - initially, a priori inherent in reason, a priori, not acquired from experience and not causing it, preceding experience. Transcendental, a priori forms of reason, according to Kant, are space, time, causality, necessity and other categories.

The universe is a philosophical term denoting the entire objective reality in time and space.

Universals (from lat. universalis - general) - general concepts.

Utopia (from the Greek. place that does not exist) - the image of the ideal social order devoid of scientific justification. The term was introduced in 1516 by T. More, the author of the book "Utopia". Gradually, this concept became a household word, symbolizing unrealistic plans for social transformation.

Fatalism (from Latin fatal) is a worldview that considers every event as an inevitable realization of the original predestination, excluding free choice and chance.

The phenomenal world is the world of phenomena.

Fideism (from Lat. faith) is the assertion of the priority of faith over reason, characteristic of religious worldviews based on revelation. Fideism limits the sphere of scientific influence, assigning a decisive role in understanding the world to faith.

Function (from Latin performance) is a philosophical relationship between two objects, in which a change in one accompanies a change in the other. The concept was introduced into scientific circulation by Leibniz. With the development of functional research methods in the sciences, interest in function as a philosophical category has constantly increased. The functional approach to the theory of knowledge was especially developed in the works of Cassirer, who believed that knowledge is aimed not at studying the substance of isolated objects, but at establishing dependencies (functions) that allow a natural transition from one object to another.

Value is a concept that indicates the value of certain phenomena of reality. The whole variety of objects of human activity, social relations and natural phenomena, included in human perception, can act as values, i.e. be evaluated as good and evil, truth and untruth, beauty and ugliness, as fair and unfair, permissible or forbidden. The criteria by which the evaluation procedure is carried out are fixed in culture and public consciousness as subjective values. These include imperatives, goals, projects in the form of normative representations, attitudes. Thus, values ​​exist in two forms - as objective values ​​and subjective values. The philosophical theory of values ​​is called axiology (from the Greek valuable), it examines the relationship of various values ​​among themselves. It arose in the era of Socrates, who first posed the question: “What is good?”

Civilization (from Latin civil, state) is a concept that appeared in France in the 18th century. as a characterization by the enlighteners of a society based on the principles of reason and justice. Since that time, civilization has become virtually synonymous with culture. At the same time, this concept is used in philosophical literature as a characteristic of the stage of material and spiritual culture. In a narrower sense, it is used as a characteristic of the stage of social development following barbarism.

Pure reason is theoretical reason in Kant's philosophy.

Eidos is a prototype, a form of things, an idea of ​​a thing.

Eschatology (Greek - the last, extreme), the religious doctrine of the final destinies of the world and man.

Extravertive, see Introvertive and extravertive.

Eclecticism (from Greek choosing) - the term was introduced in the II century. Potamon of Alexandria, who called his school "eclectic". This is a combination of heterogeneous views, principles, ideas, theories. Eclecticism is rooted in the substitution of some logical foundations for others, in the absolutization of the relativity of human knowledge.

Emanation (from Latin, outflow, distribution) is a philosophical concept developed in Neoplatonism (Plotinus), which means the transition from the highest and perfect ontological level of the universe to less perfect and lower levels. As a type of reflection, emanation is a descent, opposite to ascent, perfection.

Empiricism (from Greek experience) is a trend in philosophy and theory of knowledge that recognizes sensory experience as a source of knowledge and believes that the content of knowledge can be provided either as a description of this experience, or reduced to it.

An enthymeme is a conclusion, a reasoning in which either the premises or the conclusion itself are not explicitly formulated, but only implied, "remain in the mind." In this sense, this concept as an abbreviated syllogism, in which one of the parts is omitted, was used by Aristotle. This is the practice of thinking, when, in order to speed up the exchange of thoughts, you can omit what is obvious. Sometimes in a dispute, enthymeme is resorted to when they want to draw attention from a premise, the truth of which can be questioned. Precisely, assuming such a possibility, Aristotle called the enthymeme a rhetorical syllogism.

Epistemology (from Greek knowledge and teaching) is a concept used to refer to the theory of knowledge. Theory of natural science knowledge.

Aesthetics (from the Greek. Feeling) is a philosophical discipline that studies the sphere of artistic activity of people and the value attitude of a person to the world.

Ethics (from the Greek. temper, custom) is a philosophical science, the subject of which is morality, morality as the most important side human life. Ethics analyzes the nature of morality, its structure, origin and historical development of morality, theoretically substantiates its various concepts.

1. The Absolute is the origin of everything that exists, which does not depend on anything else, itself contains everything that exists and creates it.

2. Abstraction is a process of thinking in which the multitude is abstracted from the individual, random, insignificant and singles out the general, necessary, essential in order to achieve scientific objective knowledge.

3. Agnosticism - the doctrine of the unknowability of true being, that is, the transcendence of the divine; unknowability of truth and the objective world, its essence and laws.

4. Axiology - the doctrine of values.

5. Accident - insignificant, changeable, accidental, which can be omitted without changing the essence of the thing.

6. Analysis and synthesis - Analysis - the procedure for mentally dividing the whole into parts

Synthesis is a procedure of mental consciousness of the whole from parts.

7. Analogy - the similarity of non-identical objects in some aspects, qualities, relationships.

8. Archetype - prototype, primary form, sample.

9. Attribute - a sign, a sign, an essential property.

10. Unconsciousness - a mental life that takes place without the participation of consciousness.

12. Faith - the acceptance of something as truth, which does not need the necessary full confirmation of the truth of what is accepted from the senses and reason and, therefore, cannot claim objective significance.

13. Probability is a possibility taken from its quantitative side.

14. Possibility and reality - possibility - this, the tendencies of the emergence and development of which already exist in reality, but which has not yet become the presence of being. Reality is all objective existing world, concrete, phenomena are taken in unity with their essence. - concrete existence separate object, at certain times, conditions.

15. Time is a universal form of matter……… the subject of time is based on the awareness of time. The object of time is measured by certain segments.

16. Hedonism is an ethical direction that considers sensual joy, pleasure, pleasure as a motive, goal or proof of all moral behavior.

17. Hylozoism is a philosophical trend that considers all matter from the very beginning as living. Spirit and matter do not exist without each other. The whole world is the universe, there are no boundaries between the inanimate and the psychic, since this is the product of a single pro-matter.

18. A hypothesis is a well-thought-out assumption, expressed in the form of scientific concepts, which should, in a certain place, fill in the problems of empirical knowledge or link various knowledge into a single whole, or provide a preliminary explanation for a fact or group of facts.

19. Epistemology - the doctrine of knowledge / metaphysical component of the theory of knowledge along with the logical and psychological.

20. Movement is a process of change without a definite direction.

Form of existence of matter and spirit.

21. Deduction and induction - deduction - a form of thinking based on the derivation of the particular from the general. Induction is a form of thinking based on the movement of knowledge from the separate, special to the universal, regular.

22. Deism is a form of faith based on the recognition that God is the root cause of the world, but after his creation, the movement of the universe takes place without the participation of God.

23. Determinism is the doctrine of the initial determinability of all processes occurring in the world, including all processes of human life.

24. Activity is a form of existence of human society; manifestation of the activity of the subject, expressed in the expedient change of the surrounding world and oneself. It has a conscious character, includes a goal, a means, a result and the process itself.

25. Dialectics is the art of argumentation, the science of logic.

26. Dogma is a philosophical thesis, the truth of which, as a result, is placed at the basis of one or another philosophical system.

27. Dualism - the coexistence of 2 different beginnings, principles, images that cannot be reduced to unity.

28. Spirit - expressing the ideal principle, from which the creative force emanates, improving and raising man and the world to the absolute, certainly valuable.

29. Soul - a concept that expresses historically changed views on the psyche and the inner world of a person.

30. Life is a special form of existence, characterized by integrity and the ability to self-organize; a specific way of resolving contradictions between the external and the internal, the part and the whole.

31. Law - identical, constant, repetition observed in phenomena and processes.

32. A sign is a sensually perceived object, which in the process of spiritual activity represents another object different from it.

33. Knowledge is the result of the process of cognition, the truth, which is verified in the course of practice; reflection of reality in the human mind in the form of perceptions, ideas, concepts, theories; the process of understanding, evaluating the phenomena of being.

34. Ideal - a subjective image of objective reality that arises in the process of purposeful human activity, expressed in the forms of human consciousness and will.

36. Immanent - internal inherent in an object, phenomenon or process.

37. Instinct - a set of innate stable forms of animal behavior.

38. Interpretation - interpretation, explanation; attribution of meanings (meanings) to the elements of the theory.

39. Introspection - self-observation, observation by a person of his own internal conscious mental life.

40. Truth is an adequate reflection of objective reality by the cognizing subject, reproducing the cognizable object as it exists outside and independently of consciousness.

41. Historical and logical - concepts of theoretical philosophy 1. In ontological history - the process of formation and development of an object. Logical is the result of historical development, the theoretical reproduction of an object in a developed state. 2. In epistemology - historical - a method of knowledge; reproduction of the sequence of decisive stages of the development process and the transitions between them. L is a method of cognition in statics, when the systems are formed.

42. Quality is a system of the most important, necessary properties of objects - the external and internal certainty of the system characteristic features objects, losing which objects cease to be what they are.

43. Quantity - a set of such changes in a material system that are not identical to a change in its essence.

44. Logos is a deep divine law that directs all being.

Mediator between the extranatural God and the world created by him.

45. Matter is that from which everything comes, the bodily origin.

46. ​​Metaphysics is the most important branch of philosophical doctrine, speculatively interpreting the highest, last principles of being, inaccessible to a known understanding.

47. Methodology - the doctrine of scientific method knowledge.

A set of methods used in any area of ​​human activity.

48. Worldview - a system of the most general ideas about the world as a whole and a person's place in this world.

49. Mysticism is a practice, the purpose of which is to merge, unite with the absolute, substance.

Philosophical and theoretical doctrines that substantiate mystical and worldview and practice.

50. Monism is a concept that characterizes such a worldview that explains the existence of everything that exists in the world, as a result of modifications of the substance - the origin, the root cause, the single basis of all that exists.

51. Thinking - the highest level knowledge and ideal development of the world in the form of theories, ideas, human goals. Relying on the sensual sphere, he overcomes their limitations and penetrates into the sphere of the essential connections of the world, its laws.

52. Observation is a cognitive activity associated with a deliberate purposeful perception of objects and phenomena of the external world.

53. Necessity and chance - necessity - that which follows from the very essence of material systems, processes, events and that should happen this way and not otherwise. Randomness is something that has a basis and principle mainly not in itself, but in something else, which follows not from the main connections and relations, but from side ones; what may or may not be; it could happen this way, or it could happen the other way.

54. Nihilism is the denial of the ideals and values ​​of the spiritual order, the denial of culture.

55. Society - a set of objective social relations that exist in certain historical forms and develop in the process of joint practical activities of people.

56. Ontology is the doctrine of being as such, independent of its particular varieties.

58. Pantheism is a philosophical doctrine according to which God is an indifferent principle that is not outside nature, but is identical with it.

59. Paradigm - a set of theoretical and methodological prerequisites that determine a specific scientific research, which is embodied in scientific practice at this stage.

60. A concept is a thought that singles out objects from a certain subject area (universe) and collects (generalizes) objects into a class by pointing to their common and distinctive feature.

61. Practice is a purposeful, subject-sensory activity of a person to transform material systems.

Philosophy(from Greek - love of truth, wisdom) - a form of social consciousness; doctrine of general principles being and knowledge, about the relation of man to the world, the science of the universal laws of the development of nature, society and thinking. Philosophy develops a generalized system of views on the world, the place of man in it; it explores cognitive values, socio-political, moral and aesthetic attitude of man to the world.

The subject of philosophy are the universal properties and connections (relationships) of reality - nature, man, the relationship of objective reality and the subjectivism of the world, material and ideal, being and thinking. Where the universal is the properties, connections, relations inherent in both objective reality and the subjective world of man. Quantitative and qualitative certainty, structural and causal relationships, and other properties, relationships refer to all spheres of reality: nature, consciousness. The subject of philosophy must be distinguished from the problems of philosophy, because the problems of philosophy exist objectively, independently of philosophy. Universal properties and connections (production and time, quantity and quality) existed when the science of philosophy did not yet exist as such.

The main functions of philosophy are: 1) the synthesis of knowledge and the creation of a unified picture of the world corresponding to a certain level of development of science, culture and historical experience; 2) substantiation, justification and analysis of the worldview; 3) development of a general methodology for cognition and human activity in the surrounding world. Each science studies its own range of problems. To do this, he develops his own concepts that are used in a strictly defined area for a more or less limited range of phenomena. However, none of the sciences, except for philosophy, deals with the special question of what is "necessity", "accident", etc. although he can use them in his field. Such concepts are extremely broad, general and universal. They reflect the universal connections, interactions and conditions for the existence of any things and are called categories. The main tasks or problems relate to clarifying the relationship between human consciousness and the outside world, between thinking and the being around us.

As a rule, philosophy is treated as, perhaps, the most incomprehensible and abstract of all sciences, the most remote from everyday life. But although many people think of it as unconnected with ordinary interests and beyond understanding, almost all of us - whether we are aware of it or not - have some kind of philosophical outlook. It is also curious that although most people have a very vague idea of ​​\u200b\u200bwhat philosophy is, the word itself is quite common in their conversations.

The word "philosophy" comes from the ancient Greek word for "love of wisdom", but when we use it in everyday life, we often put a different meaning into it.

Sometimes by philosophy we understand the attitude towards a certain activity. Again, we talk about a philosophical approach to something when we mean a long-term, as it were, detached consideration of some momentary problem. When someone gets frustrated about a failed plan, we advise them to be more "philosophical" about it. Here we want to say that one should not overestimate the importance of the current moment, but try to look at the situation in perspective. We give another meaning to this word when we mean by philosophy an attempt to evaluate or explain what is or has meaning in life.

Generally speaking, regardless of the variety of meanings attached to the words "philosophy" and "philosophical" in everyday speech, we feel the desire to link this subject with some kind of extremely complex mental work. “... All ... areas of knowledge border in the space around us with the unknown. When a person enters the border regions or goes beyond them, he falls from science into the sphere of speculation. His speculative activity is also a kind of study, and this, among other things, is philosophy. (B. Russell). There are many questions that thinking people ask themselves at some point and for which science cannot offer an answer. Those who try to think are unwilling to take on faith the ready-made answers of the prophets. The task of philosophy is to embrace the world in its unity, to study these questions and, if possible, to explain them.

Every person faces the problems discussed in philosophy. How is the world? Is the world evolving? Who or what determines these laws of development? What place is occupied by regularity, and what place - by chance? Man's position in the world: mortal or immortal? How can a person understand his destiny. What are the human cognitive abilities? What is truth and how can it be distinguished from falsehood? Moral problems: conscience, responsibility, justice, good and evil. These questions are posed by life itself. This or that question determines the direction of human life. What is the sense of life? Does he exist at all? Does the world have a purpose? Does the development of history lead anywhere? Are there really laws that govern nature? Is the world divided into spirit and matter? What is the way they coexist? What is a person: a particle of dust? A set of chemical elements? Spiritual giant? Or all together? Does it matter how we live: righteous or not? Is there a higher wisdom? Philosophy is called upon to correctly resolve these issues, to help transform spontaneously formed views in the worldview, which is necessary in the formation of a person. These problems were solved long before philosophy - in mythology, religion and other sciences.

In terms of its content (V.F. Shapovalov, for example, believes that one should speak more about the content of philosophy, and not about the subject), philosophy is the desire for inclusiveness and unity. If other sciences make some separate slice of reality the subject of study, then philosophy seeks to embrace the whole of reality in its unity. Philosophy is characterized by the idea that the world has an internal unity, despite the external fragmentation of parts. The reality of the world as a whole - such is the content of philosophy.

We often picture a philosopher as someone who sits and ponders the higher purpose of human life while everyone else barely has the time or energy to simply exist. Sometimes, mainly thanks to the media, we get the impression that these people have devoted themselves to contemplating the world's problems and creating theoretical systems so abstract and general that they may be great, but are of little practical importance.

Along with this idea of ​​who philosophers are and what they are trying to do, there is another. According to the latter, a philosopher is one who is entirely responsible for the general ideas and ideals of certain societies and cultures. We are told that thinkers like Mr. Marx & Mr. Engels created the world view of the Communist Party, while others like Thomas Jefferson, John Locke and John Stuart Mill developed the theories that dominate the democratic world.

Regardless of these different ideas about the role of the philosopher, and regardless of how connected we see his activity with our immediate interests, the philosopher is involved in the consideration of problems that are directly or indirectly important to all of us. Through careful critical examination, this person is trying to assess the validity of the data and beliefs that we have about the universe as a whole and about the world of people. As a result of this study, the philosopher is trying to develop some kind of general, systematized, consistent and harmonious idea of ​​​​everything that we know and think about. As we learn more and more about the world with the help of the sciences, it is necessary to consider all new interpretations of the developed ideas. "What is the world like in the most in general terms”is a question that no science, except philosophy, has dealt with, does not deal with and will not deal with” (B. Russell).

From the very beginning of philosophy more than two thousand years ago in ancient Greece, among the serious thinkers involved in this process, there was a conviction that it was necessary to carefully check the rational validity of those views on the world around us and ourselves that we accept. We all perceive a lot of information and a lot of opinions about the material universe and the human world. However, only very few of us ever consider how reliable or significant this data is. We are generally inclined to accept without hesitation reports of scientific discoveries sanctified by the tradition of belief and diversity of view based on personal experience. Likewise, the philosopher insists on a scrupulous critical examination of all this, in order to establish whether these beliefs and views are based on sufficient grounds and whether a thinking person should accept them.

According to its method, philosophy is a rational way of explaining reality. She is not satisfied with emotional symbols, but strives for logical argumentation and validity. Philosophy strives to build a system based on reason and not on faith or artistic image which play an auxiliary role in philosophy.

The goal of philosophy is knowledge free from ordinary practical interests. Utility is not its goal. Even Aristotle said: "All other sciences are more necessary, but none is better."

In world philosophy, two trends are quite clearly visible. Philosophy approaches either science or art (V.A. Kanke).

In all historical epochs, philosophy and science have gone hand in hand, complementing each other. Many ideals of science, such as conclusiveness, systematicity, testability of statements, were originally developed in philosophy. In philosophy, as in science, one investigates, reflects, some statements are substantiated by others. But where science separates (only what belongs to the sphere of a given science matters), philosophy unites; it is not characterized by distancing from any sphere of human existence. There is a non-stop process of exchange of ideas between philosophy and science, which gave rise to areas of knowledge bordering between science and philosophy (philosophical questions of physics, mathematics, biology, sociology; for example, the idea of ​​relativity, non-independence of space and time, which was first discussed in philosophy by Leibniz , Mach, then in mathematics by Lobachevsky, Poincare, later in physics by Einstein). Never before has philosophy been so scientifically oriented as it is now. On the one hand, this is a blessing. But on the other hand, it is wrong to reduce all its virtues to the scientific orientation of philosophy. The first scientists were convinced of the compatibility of their views and religion. Unraveling the secrets of nature, they tried to decipher the "letters of God." But with the development of science and the growth of its social influence, science is replacing all other forms of culture - religion, philosophy, art. (I.S. Turgenev wrote about this in his novel “Fathers and Sons”). Such an attitude threatens to completely oust from human relations the elements of humanity, people's sympathy for each other.

There is also a sensuous-aesthetic aspect of philosophy. For example, Schelling believed that philosophy is not content with the conceptual comprehension of the world, but strives for the sublime (feeling) and art is closer to it than science. This idea revealed the humanistic function of philosophy, its extremely attentive attitude to man. This position is good, it is bad when it is exaggerated and the scientific and moral orientation of philosophy is denied. “Philosophy is a call to refined truth and sublime feeling” (V.A. Kanke).

But it is not enough to explain the world and call for perfection, this world must be changed. But in what direction? We need a system of values, ideas about good and evil, proper and improper. This is where the special role of philosophy in the practical provision of the successful development of civilization becomes clear. A more detailed examination of philosophical systems always reveals their ethical content. Practical (moral) philosophy is interested in achieving good. The high moral traits of people do not arise by themselves, they are quite often the direct result of the fruitful activity of philosophers. Nowadays, the ethical function of philosophy is often called axiological; This refers to the orientation of philosophy to known values. Axiology, as a science of values, developed only by the beginning of the 20th century.

The ethical philosopher chooses the ideals of good (rather than evil) as the goal of his activity. The focus of philosophical discussion is not a thought-action and not a feeling-action, but any action, a universal goal - good. The ideals of the good are characteristic both of those who carry out the growth of knowledge, and of the connoisseurs of the sublime, and of the builders of highways, and of the builders of power stations. Practical orientation is characteristic of philosophy as a whole, but it acquires universal significance precisely within the framework of the ethical function of philosophy.

The value of philosophy is not in practical utility, but in moral utility, because philosophy is looking for an ideal, a guiding star in people's lives. First of all, the ideal is moral, connected with the search for the meaning of human life and social development. At the same time, philosophy is guided by the ideals of science, art and practice, but these ideals acquire in philosophy an originality corresponding to its specifics. Being a whole, philosophy has a branched structure.

As a doctrine of being, philosophy acts as an ontology (the doctrine of being). Isolation of different types of being - nature, man, society, technology - will lead to the philosophy of nature, man (anthropology), society (philosophy of history). The philosophy of knowledge is called epistemology or epistemology. As the doctrine of the methods of cognition, philosophy is a methodology. As the doctrine of the ways of creativity, philosophy is heuristics. Branched areas of philosophy are philosophy of science, philosophy of religion, philosophy of language, philosophy of art (aesthetics), philosophy of culture, philosophy of practice (ethics), history of philosophy. In the philosophy of science, the philosophical questions of individual sciences (logic, mathematics, physics, biology, cybernetics, political science, etc.) have a relatively independent significance. And these separate specialized spheres of philosophical knowledge are indirectly capable of bringing significant practical results. For example, the philosophy and methodology of science help individual sciences in solving their problems. Thus, philosophy contributes to scientific and technological progress. social philosophy participates in solving socio-political, economic and other problems. It can be rightfully asserted that in all the achievements of mankind there is a significant, albeit indirect, contribution of philosophy. Philosophy is one and diverse, a person cannot do without it in any of the areas of his life.

What is this science about? Why not just give a clear definition of its subject, consider it in such a way that it is clear from the very beginning what the philosopher is trying to do?

The difficulty is that it is easier to explain philosophy by doing it than by describing it from the outside. It consists partly in a certain approach to the consideration of issues, partly in an attempt to solve some of the problems traditionally of interest to those who call themselves (or who are called by others) "philosophers." The one thing that philosophers have never been able to agree on, and hardly ever agree on, is what philosophy is all about.

People who are seriously engaged in philosophy set themselves various tasks. Some tried to explain and substantiate certain religious beliefs, while others, doing science, sought to show the meaning and reveal the meaning of various scientific discoveries and theories. Still others (John Locke, Marx) used philosophy in an attempt to change the political organization of society. Many were interested in substantiating and publishing some ideas that, in their opinion, could help humanity. Some did not set themselves such grandiose goals, but simply wanted to understand the features of the world in which they live and understand the beliefs that people adhere to.

The professions of philosophers are as diverse as their tasks. Some were teachers, often university professors, who taught courses in philosophy. Others were leaders of religious movements, many were ordinary artisans.

Regardless of the goals pursued and the specific occupation, all philosophers adhere to the belief that it is extremely important and necessary to carefully study and analyze our views, our justification for them. It is natural for a philosopher to approach certain things in a certain way. He wants to establish what meaning our fundamental ideas and concepts carry, on what basis our knowledge is based, what standards should be followed in order to come to correct conclusions, what beliefs should be defended, and so on. The philosopher believes that thinking about such questions leads a person to a deeper understanding of the universe, nature and people.

Philosophy summarizes the achievements of science, relies on them. Ignoring scientific achievements would lead to its empty content. But the development of science takes place against the background of cultural and social development. Therefore, philosophy is called upon to promote the humanization of science, increasing the role of moral factors in it. It should limit the exorbitant claims of science to the role of the only and universal way of mastering the world. It correlates the facts of scientific knowledge with the ideals and values ​​of humanitarian culture.

The study of philosophy contributes to the improvement of the general culture and the formation of the philosophical culture of the individual. It expands consciousness: for communication, people need a breadth of consciousness, the ability to understand another person or themselves, as if from the outside. Philosophy and the skills of philosophical thinking help with this. The philosopher has to consider the points of view of different people, critically comprehend them. Thus, spiritual experience is accumulated, which contributes to the expansion of consciousness.

However, when questioning any ideas or theories, one should not stay at this stage for a long time, one must move on in search of a positive solution, since incessant hesitation is a fruitless dead end.

The study of philosophy is called upon to form the art of living in a deliberately imperfect world. To live without losing personal certainty, individual soul and universal human spirituality. One can resist circumstances only with the ability to maintain spiritual sobriety, self-worth, and one's own dignity. For a person, the significance of the personal dignity of other people becomes clear. Neither a herd nor an egoistic position is possible for an individual.

“The study of philosophy promotes the ability to concentrate. Personality is impossible without inner composure. Collecting one's own personality is akin to self-purification” (V.F. Shapovalov).

Philosophy makes people think. Bertrand Russell writes in his book A History of Western Philosophy: "It moderates religious and philosophical passions, and the pursuit of it makes people more intellectual individuals, which is not so bad for a world in which there is a lot of stupidity." To change the world, he believes, is best possible through moral improvement and self-improvement. Philosophy can do this. Man must act on the basis of his thought and his will. But with one condition: not to encroach on the freedom of others. Having health, well-being and the ability for creative work, he can succeed in spiritual self-improvement and achieve happiness.

The purpose of philosophy is to search for the destiny of man, to ensure the existence of man in a bizarre world. To be or not to be? - that is the question. And if so, what kind? The purpose of philosophy is ultimately to elevate man, to provide universal conditions for his perfection. Philosophy is needed to ensure the best possible state of mankind. Philosophy calls every person to nobility, truth, beauty, goodness.

Used materials

· "Introduction to Philosophy" by W. Wundt, "CheRo" ©, "Dobrosvet" © 1998.

· "Philosophy: An Introductory Course" by Richard Popkin, Avrum Stroll "Silver Threads" ©, "University Book" © 1997.

· "The Wisdom of the West" B. Russell, Moscow "Republic" 1998.

· “Philosophy” by V.A. Kanke, Moscow "Logos" 1998.

· “Fundamentals of Philosophy” by V.F. Shapovalov, Moscow "Grand" 1998.

Philosophy. Ed. L.G. Kononovich, G.I. Medvedev, Rostov-on-Don "Phoenix" 1996.

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1. Analysis- the division of objects into their constituent elements

2. Anarchy- (from the Greek anarchia - anarchia) - the state in which society is when state power is abolished in it

3. A priori- (lat. a priori - previous) - knowledge that precedes experience and is independent of it. An a priori view is one whose correctness cannot be proved or refuted by experience.

4. Ataraxia- (from the Greek ataraxia - equanimity) - peace of mind, serenity as supreme value in the philosophy of Epicurus

5. Attribute- (from lat. attribuo - to endow) - a sign, a sign, an essential property.

6. Matter attributes- the objectivity of existence, i.e. independence from human consciousness, indestructibility, movement, space, time.

8. Unconscious- mental life, taking place without the participation of consciousness.

9. Biosphere- the living shell of the Earth, which has a complex structure.

10. Good- something that has value. The good is a prerequisite for moral values

11. The God -(Latin deus, Greek theos) - the highest object of religious faith, always considered more or less as a person, is considered an entity endowed with "supernatural", i.e. extraordinary, properties and powers;

12. Being- a general concept of being in general, the real existence of the world.

13. Vera- acceptance of something as truth, which does not need the necessary full confirmation of the truth of what is accepted from the senses and mind and, therefore, cannot claim objective significance.

14. Verification- (from lat. verus - true and facio - I do) - confirmation.

15. Power is one of the important types of social interaction, a specific relationship between two subjects, one of which obeys the orders of the other, as a result of this subordination, the ruling subject realizes its will and interests.

16. Will- is a spiritual act by which some value recognized as such is confirmed or by which it is sought.

17. WILL- conscious purposefulness of a person to perform certain actions.

18. Time- the duration of material events and the order in which they follow each other.

19. Harmony- (Greek harmonia - connection, proportionality) - consonance, agreement

20. State- it is one political organization a society that extends its power to the entire population within the territory of the country, issues binding legal decrees, has sovereignty, a special apparatus of control and coercion

21. Motion- any change, transformation, process.

22. Democracy- this is a way of functioning of political power, based on the recognition of the people as a source of power, on their right to participate in solving state and public affairs and endowing them with a wide range of rights and freedoms.

23. Activity- a type of activity aimed at such a change in the external environment, as a result of which something new is obtained - a product, a result.

24. Good is a basic moral value, a moral value in itself.

25. Law - a prescription as to how a person should behave in society; in science, a position that expresses the general course of things in any area.

26. Knowledge- a generalized result of human activity, existing in a symbolic and ideal form

27. Ideal- a mental image of perfection and therefore the desired future

28. Ideology- a set of beliefs, views, attitudes and ideas of people associated with a certain understanding of social life, assessment of its quality, prospects for transformation.

29. Individual is the only representative of the human race. Special person.

30. Information society - a society in which the main wealth and resource is information. This concept arose in the II half. 60s - humanity first realized the existence of an information explosion, when the amount of information circulating in society began to increase.

31. Art- the initial designation of any skill of a higher and more special kind ("the art of thinking", "the art of warfare"); in the generally accepted special sense - the designation of skill in the field of creativity

32. True- correct, adequate reflection of objects and phenomena of reality by the cognizing subject; TRUE - corresponding to the actual state of things, but there are also undiscovered, unknown truths

33. Karma- (Sanskrit "labor") - in a broad sense - the sum of the good and evil deeds of life, which, on the basis of its automatically natural causality, creates the prerequisites for a new life with a certain fate

34. Classes- these are large groups of people who differ in their place in a historically determined system of social production, in their relation to the means of production, in their role in public organization labor, according to the methods of obtaining and the size of the share of wealth that they have.

35. Team- an organized group of people united by common goals and interests, joint activities.

36. Communication the transmission of messages from one party to another, from one individual to another, from one social group to another.

37. Consensus- this is one of the optimal forms of ending the conflict, when the conflicting parties come to an agreement

38. Conflict– it is a process of sharp aggravation of contradiction and struggle.

39. culture- (lat. cultura) - originally processing and caring for the land; in a broad sense, culture is a set of manifestations of the life, achievements and creativity of the people, divided into various areas - customs and customs, language and writing, the nature of clothing, the economy, the socio-political structure, art, etc.

40. Personality is, first of all, social qualities human, which are formed only in society.

41. Matter(substance) - there is a philosophical category for designating an objective reality that is given to a person in his sensations, which is copied, photographed, displayed in our sensations, existing independently of a person. A synonym for objective reality, the universe.

42. mentality- mindset of the people

44. outlook- this is a generalized system of views of a person (and society) on the world around him and his place in this world

45. Mystic- the spiritual practice of direct comprehension of the Absolute, the supernatural.

46. Monad- (from the Greek monás - unit) - Giordano Bruno has a physical and at the same time a mental element of reality. But the true founder of the doctrine of monads (monadology) is Leibniz

47. Morality– morality

48. The science- a multifaceted, multifaceted and complex phenomenon: it appears both as a social institution, as a certain activity for the production of knowledge, and as a tradition that allows this specific activity to be realized. This is a social institution that ensures the functioning of professional (cognitive) activities.

49. Nation -(from Latin natio - people, tribe) - a people that has created a government dependent on it and has at its disposal a territory whose borders are more or less respected by other nations (a people organized into a state). . .

50. Noosphere- this is a state of the natural environment consciously created by a person, the sphere of the mind

51. Communication- a type of activity in which there is an exchange of ideas and emotions.

52. Public consciousness - a set of emotions, moods, attitudes, theories of society at a particular stage of its development

53. Society is a form of joint life activity of people based on social solidarity and division of labor.

54. Main Question philosophy reveals the main discord in the relationship of man with the world. Engels in his definition caught only one aspect of the main question - the relation of matter to ideas. It is important to answer the other part about. in. f. : do we know the world or not? Depending on the answer to this question, philosophers are divided into gnostics and agnostics.

55. Alienation- a characteristic of a special form of the relationship of a person in the process of his life with the outside world, in which the products of his own activity oppose a person, dominate him, as something alien to him.

56. The consignment- This is an organized group of like-minded people who adhere to a certain worldview, representing the interests of a part of the people and aiming to implement them by conquering state power or participating in its implementation.

57. Cognition- the process of comprehension by a person of new, previously unknown facts, phenomena of reality.

58. Need- the need for something, the requests and desires of a person.

59. Human rights- these are the natural capabilities of a person that ensure his life, dignity and freedom of activity.

60. Principles- ideas and rules that a person should be guided by in life.

61. Nature- (from the Greek physis, from phyein - to arise, to be born; lat. natura, from nasci - the same thing) - that which is essential for every being from its very appearance.

62. Nature- a set of natural conditions of human existence

63. natural environment ( geographical environment) - a part of the material world, nature, involved in the life of man and society.

64. Progress- progressive movement, the development of people in the direction of the better, higher.

65. Space- that which is common to all experiences that arise through the senses. This is the extent and mutual arrangement of material objects and phenomena relative to each other.

66. Intelligence- the mind, ability, activity of the human spirit, aimed not only at causal knowledge, but also at the knowledge of values, at the universal connection of things and all phenomena

67. Revolution- (from late Latin revolutio - turn, coup) - 1) a revolution in the field of worldview, science, art, fashion; 2) a sudden, violent change in the existing socio-political system

68. Regression- backward movement

69. Religion- worldview, appropriate behavior, determined by faith in the existence of God.

70. Reflection- self-knowledge, self-awareness, the process of understanding something through the study of oneself

71. Reform- transformation, innovation, change in any area

72. freedom- this is a specifically human quality that underlies the formation of his individuality, as well as creative activity. Freedom and responsibility are two sides of one whole - the conscious activity of a person.

73. Family- a small group based on marriage or consanguinity, whose members are connected by a common life, mutual assistance, moral and legal responsibility.

74. Death- the natural end of life of a living organism

75. Meaning of life(of a person) is a regulative concept inherent in any developed worldview system, which justifies and interprets the moral norms and values ​​inherent in this system, shows in the name of what the activity prescribed by them is necessary.

76. Consciousness- this is the highest function of the brain, characteristic only of people and associated with speech, which consists in a generalized reflection of reality.

77. Sophistry- deliberate use in a dispute or in evidence of incorrect arguments, the so-called. sophisms, i.e., all sorts of tricks disguised by external, formal correctness. .

78. Mode of production- the unity of productive and production relations

79. Capabilities- in a broad sense - the mental properties of an individual that regulate his behavior and serve as a condition for his life.

80. Justice- is a prerequisite for the implementation of all other values ​​and consists in respecting another's personality and not intruding into the sphere of his freedom.

81. Stagnation- stagnation, slowdown

82. Substance(from lat. - essence) - something unchanging as opposed to changing states and properties; that which exists because of itself and in itself, and not because of another, for example, matter.

83. Scholasticism- school philosophy in the period of the Christian Middle Ages.

84. Happiness- a state of complete satisfaction, an absolute absence of desires, an ideal

85. Theory- (from the Greek. theoria - consideration, research) - a system of basic ideas in a particular branch of knowledge.

86. Work– social activity of a person, i.e., the ability of a person to transform the environment of existence.

87. Philosophy- this is a special form of spiritual experience of a person and society, which is constantly theoretically substantiated and has a greater degree of scientificity than just a worldview. This is scientific theorizing about the world, the place of man in it. The very word "philosophy" literally means the love of wisdom, in a broader sense, the desire for truth.

88. Target- a subjective image of the desired, for the sake of which actions are taken.

89. Values- sociocultural significance of certain objects, processes, phenomena for a person

90. Civilization- sociocultural complex. In science, earthly, extraterrestrial and cosmic Ts are distinguished. This is the level of development of material and spiritual culture.

91. Human- this is a concept used to characterize the universal qualities and abilities inherent in all people.

92. Elite- the highest privileged strata of society, performing the functions of management, development of science and culture.

93. Emanation- outflow, radiation of the divine absolute in the philosophy of neoplatonism

94. me or ego- that part of the human personality, which is realized as I and is in contact with the outside world through perception

95. Language- a means of expressing thoughts that a person owns, the highest form of manifestation of the objective spirit.