Human physiology for sports universities. Human physiology

Author Alexander Sergeevich Solodkov

Alexey Solodkov, Elena Sologub

Human physiology. General. Sports. Age

Textbook for higher educational institutions of physical culture

Edition 6, revised and enlarged

Approved by the Ministry of the Russian Federation for Physical Culture and Sports as a textbook for higher educational institutions of physical culture

The publication was prepared at the Department of Physiology of the National State University of Physical Culture, Sports and Health named after P.F. Lesgaft, St. Petersburg

Reviewers:

IN AND. Kuleshov, Dr. med. Sciences, prof. (VmedA named after S.M. Kirov)

THEM. Kozlov, doctor biol, and doctor ped. Sciences, prof.

(NSU named after P.F. Lesgaft, St. Petersburg)

Foreword

Human physiology is the theoretical basis for a number of practical disciplines (medicine, psychology, pedagogy, biomechanics, biochemistry, etc.) Without understanding normal flow physiological processes and the constants characterizing them, various specialists cannot correctly assess the functional state of the human body and its performance in various conditions of activity. Knowledge of the physiological mechanisms of regulation of various functions of the body is important in understanding the course of recovery processes during and after intense muscular work.

Revealing the main mechanisms that ensure the existence of an integral organism and its interaction with the environment, physiology makes it possible to find out and study the conditions and nature of changes in the activity of various organs and systems in the process of human ontogenesis. Physiology is a science that carries out systems approach in the study and analysis of diverse intra- and intersystem interconnections of a complex human body and bringing them into specific functional formations and a unified theoretical picture.

It is important to emphasize that Russian researchers play a significant role in the development of modern scientific physiological concepts. Knowledge of the history of any science is a necessary prerequisite for a correct understanding of the place, role and significance of discipline in the content of the socio-political status of society, its influence on this science, as well as the influence of science and its representatives on the development of society. Therefore, the consideration of the historical path of development of individual sections of physiology, the mention of its most prominent representatives and the analysis of the natural scientific base, on which the basic concepts and concepts of this discipline were formed, make it possible to evaluate state of the art subject and determine its further promising directions.

Physiological science in Russia in the 18th – 19th centuries is represented by a galaxy of brilliant scientists - I.M. Sechenov, F.V. Ovsyannikov, A. Ya. Danilevsky, A.F. Samoilov, I.R. Tarkhanov, N.E. Vvedensky and others. But only I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov is credited with creating new directions not only in Russian, but also in world physiology.

Physiology as an independent discipline began to be taught in 1738 at the Academic (later St. Petersburg) University. A significant role in the development of physiology belongs to the Moscow University, founded in 1755, where the Department of Physiology was opened in its structure in 1776.

In 1798, the Medical-Surgical (Military-Medical) Academy was founded in St. Petersburg, which played an exceptional role in the development of human physiology. The Department of Physiology created with her was successively headed by P.A. Zagorsky, D.M. Vellansky, N.M. Yakubovich, I.M. Sechenov, I.F. Zion, F.V. Ovsyannikov, I.R. Tarkhanov, I.P. Pavlov, L.A. Orbeli, A.V. Lebedinsky, M.P. Brestkin and other outstanding representatives of physiological science. Behind each named name there are discoveries in physiology of world significance.

Physiology was included in the curriculum at physical education universities from the first days of their organization. Created by P.F. Lesgaft in 1896. For the Higher Courses in Physical Education, a physiology room was immediately opened, the first head of which was Academician I.R. Tarkhanov. In subsequent years, physiology was taught here by N.P. Kravkov, A.A. Walter, P.P. Rostovtsev, V. Ya. Chagovets, A.G. Ginetsinsky, A.A. Ukhtomsky, L.A. Orbeli, I.S. Beritov, A.N. Krestovnikov, G.V. Folbort and others.

The rapid development of physiology and the acceleration of scientific and technological progress in the country led to the emergence in the 30s of the 20th century of a new independent section of human physiology - the physiology of sports, although individual works devoted to the study of body functions during physical activity were published at the end of the 19th century (I O. Rozanov, S. S. Gruzdev, Yu.V. Blazhevich, P.K. Gorbachev and others). It should be emphasized that systematic research and teaching of sports physiology began in our country earlier than abroad, and were more purposeful. By the way, let us note that it was only in 1989 that the General Assembly of the International Union of Physiological Sciences decided to create a commission "Physiology of Sport" with it, although similar commissions and sections are in the system of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, and the V.I. I.P. Pavlov State Sports Committee of the USSR existed in our country since the 1960s.

The theoretical prerequisites for the emergence and development of sports physiology were created by the fundamental works of I.M. Sechenov, I.P. Pavlova, N.E. Vvedensky, A.A. Ukhtomsky, I. S. Beritashvili, K. M. Bykov and others. However, a systematic study of the physiological foundations of physical culture and sports began much later. A particularly great contribution to the creation of this section of physiology belongs to L.A. Orbeli and his student A.N. Krestovnikov, and it is inextricably linked with the formation and development of the University of Physical Culture named after P.F. Lesgaft and his Department of Physiology - the first such department among physical education universities in the country and in the world.

After the creation in 1919 of the Department of Physiology at the Institute of Physical Education. P.F. Lesgaft, the teaching of this subject was carried out by L.A. Orbeli, A.N. Krestovnikov, V.V. Vasilieva, A.B. Gandelsman, E.K. Zhukov, N.V. Zimkin, A.S. Mozzhukhin, E.B. Sologub, A.S. Solodkov and others. In 1938 A.N. Kreetovnikov published the first in our country and in the world "Textbook of Physiology" for the institutes of physical culture, and in 1939 - the monograph "Physiology of Sports". An important role in the further development of teaching the discipline was played by three editions of the "Textbook of Human Physiology" edited by N.V. Zimkina (1964, 1970, 1975).

The formation of the physiology of sports was largely due to the widespread implementation of fundamental and applied research on the subject. The development of any science poses for representatives of many specialties more and more practical problems, to which the theory can not always and immediately give an unambiguous answer. However, as D. Crowcroft wittily noted (1970), “... scientific research has one strange feature: they have a habit, sooner or later, to be useful for someone or for something. " Analysis of the development of educational and scientific directions of sports physiology clearly confirms this position.

The requests of the theory and practice of physical education and training require physiological science to disclose the characteristics of the functioning of the body, taking into account the age of people and the laws of their adaptation to muscle activity. The scientific principles of physical education of children and adolescents are based on the physiological laws of human growth and development at different stages of ontogenesis. In the process of physical upbringing, one should not only improve motor readiness, but also form the necessary psychophysiological properties and qualities of a person, ensuring his readiness for work, for vigorous activity in the modern world.

The formation of various organs and systems, motor qualities and skills, their improvement in the process of physical education can be successful if scientifically grounded application of various means and methods of physical culture, as well as if necessary, intensification or reduction of muscle loads. In this case, it is necessary to take into account the age-sex and individual characteristics of children, adolescents, mature and elderly people, as well as the reserve capabilities of their body at different stages of individual development. Knowledge of such patterns by specialists will protect the practice of physical education from the use of both insufficient and excessive muscle loads that are dangerous to human health.

By now, significant factual materials on sports and age physiology have been accumulated, presented in the corresponding textbooks and teaching aids. However, in last years on some sections of the subject, new data appeared that were not included in previous editions. In addition, due to the constantly changing and supplemented curriculum, the content of the previously published sections of the discipline does not correspond to modern thematic plans according to which teaching is conducted in physical education universities in Russia. With this in mind, the proposed textbook contains systematized, supplemented and, in some cases, new materials within the framework of today's educational and scientific information on the subject. The corresponding sections of the textbook also include the results of the authors' own research.

In 1998-2000. A.S. Solodkov and E.B. Sologub published three textbooks on general, sports and age physiology, which were widely demanded by students, approved by teachers and served as the basis for the preparation of a modern textbook. The textbook published by them in 2001 complies with the new program in the discipline, the requirements of the State Standard of Higher vocational education Russian Federation and includes three parts - general, sports and age physiology.

Despite the large circulation of the first edition (10 thousand copies), two years later the textbook was not in stores. Therefore, after making some corrections and additions, in 2005 the textbook was republished in the previous edition. However, by the end of 2007 it proved impossible to acquire it anywhere. At the same time, from various regions of the Russian Federation, the CIS countries, the Department of Physiology regularly receives proposals on the need for the next reprint of the textbook. In addition, the authors have at their disposal some new materials that meet the requirements of the Bologna Process for specialists in physical culture and sports.

In the prepared third edition of the textbook, along with taking into account and implementing certain comments and suggestions of readers in it, two new chapters are also included: "The functional state of athletes" and "The influence of the genome on the functional state, performance and health of athletes." For the last chapter, some materials were presented by N.M. Konevoy-Hanson, for which the authors are sincerely grateful to Natalia Mikhailovna.

All comments and suggestions on the fifth edition, aimed at improving the quality of the textbook, the authors will be gratefully accepted.

Part I

General physiology

Any coach and teacher for a successful professional activity needs knowledge of the functions of the human body. Only taking into account the peculiarities of his life can help to properly manage the growth and development of the human body, preserving the health of children and adults, maintaining working capacity even in old age, rational use of muscle loads in the process of physical education and sports training.

1. Introduction. History of physiology

The formation date of modern physiology is 1628, when the English physician and physiologist William Harvey published the results of his research on circulation in animals.

Physiology the science of the functions and mechanisms of activity of cells, tissues, organs, systems and the whole organism as a whole. The physiological function is the manifestation of the vital activity of the organism, which has an adaptive value.

1.1. The subject of physiology, its relationship with other sciences and importance for physical culture and sports

Physiology as a science is inextricably linked with other disciplines. It is based on knowledge of physics, biophysics and biomechanics, chemistry and biochemistry, general biology, genetics, histology, cybernetics, anatomy. In turn, physiology is the basis of medicine, psychology, pedagogy, sociology, theory and methods of physical education. In the process of development of physiological science from general physiology different private sections: physiology of work, physiology ...

Textbook for higher educational institutions of physical culture. 7th edition

Approved by the Ministry of the Russian Federation for Physical Culture and Sports as a textbook for higher educational institutions of physical culture

The publication was prepared at the Department of Physiology of the National State University of Physical Culture, Sports and Health named after P.F.Lesgaft, St. Petersburg

Reviewers:

V. I. Kuleshov, Dr. med. Sciences, prof. (VmedA named after S.M. Kirov)

I. M. Kozlov, Doctor of Biol. and doctor ped. Sciences, prof. (NSU named after P.F. Lesgaft, St. Petersburg)

Solodkov Aleksey Sergeevich - Professor of the Department of Physiology of the National State University of Physical Culture, Sports and Health named after V.I. PF Lesgaft (head of the department for 25 years 1986–2012).

Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation, Academician of the Petrovsk Academy of Sciences and Arts, Honorary Worker of Higher Professional Education of the Russian Federation, Chairman of the "Physiology of Sports" section and member of the Board of the St. Petersburg Physiological Society. I.M.Sechenov.

Sologub Elena Borisovna - Doctor of Biological Sciences, Professor. Since 2002 he has been living in New York (USA).

At the Department of Physiology of the National State University of Physical Culture, Sports and Health named after PF Lesgaft worked from 1956, from 1986 to 2002 - as a professor of the department. Was elected an academician Russian Academy Medical and Technical Sciences, Honorary Worker higher education Russia, a member of the Board of the St. Petersburg Society of Physiologists, Biochemists and Pharmacologists named after I.M.Sechenov.

Foreword

Human physiology is the theoretical basis for a number of practical disciplines (medicine, psychology, pedagogy, biomechanics, biochemistry, etc.). Without understanding the normal course of physiological processes and the constants characterizing them, various specialists cannot correctly assess the functional state of the human body and its performance in various conditions of activity. Knowledge of the physiological mechanisms of regulation of various functions of the body is important in understanding the course of recovery processes during and after intense muscular work.

Revealing the main mechanisms that ensure the existence of an integral organism and its interaction with the environment, physiology makes it possible to find out and study the conditions and nature of changes in the activity of various organs and systems in the process of human ontogenesis. Physiology is a science that carries out systems approach in the study and analysis of diverse intra- and intersystem interconnections of a complex human organism and their reduction into specific functional formations and a unified theoretical picture.

It is important to emphasize that Russian researchers play a significant role in the development of modern scientific physiological concepts. Knowledge of the history of any science is a necessary prerequisite for a correct understanding of the place, role and significance of discipline in the content of the socio-political status of society, its influence on this science, as well as the influence of science and its representatives on the development of society. Therefore, consideration of the historical path of development of individual sections of physiology, mention of its most prominent representatives and analysis of the natural science base, on which the basic concepts and concepts of this discipline were formed, make it possible to assess the current state of the subject and determine its further promising directions.

Physiological science in Russia in the XVIII-XIX centuries is represented by a galaxy of brilliant scientists - I. M. Sechenov, F. V. Ovsyannikov, A. Ya. Danilevsky, A. F. Samoilov, I. R. Tarkhanov, N. E. Vvedensky and others. But only IM Sechenov and IP Pavlov are credited with creating new directions not only in Russian, but also in world physiology.

Physiology as an independent discipline began to be taught in 1738 at the Academic (later St. Petersburg) University. A significant role in the development of physiology belongs to the Moscow University, founded in 1755, where the Department of Physiology was opened in its structure in 1776.

In 1798, the Medical-Surgical (Military-Medical) Academy was founded in St. Petersburg, which played an exceptional role in the development of human physiology. The Department of Physiology created under her was successively headed by P.A.Zagorsky, D.M. Vellansky, N.M. Yakubovich, I.M.Sechenov, I.F. P. Pavlov, L. A. Orbeli, A. V. Lebedinsky, M. P. Brestkin and other outstanding representatives of physiological science. Behind each named name there are discoveries in physiology of world significance.

Physiology was included in the curriculum at physical education universities from the first days of their organization. At the Higher Courses of Physical Education, created by PF Lesgaft in 1896, a physiology room was immediately opened, the first head of which was Academician I.R. In subsequent years, physiology was taught here by N.P. Kravkov, A.A. Walter, P.P. Rostovtsev, V.Ya. Chagovets, A. G. Ginetsinsky, A. A. Ukhtomsky, L. A. Orbeli, I. S. Beritov, A. N. Krestovnikov, G. V. Folbort and others.

The rapid development of physiology and the acceleration of scientific and technological progress in the country led to the emergence in the 30s of the 20th century of a new independent section of human physiology - the physiology of sports, although individual works devoted to the study of body functions during physical activity were published at the end of the 19th century (I O. Rozanov, S. S. Gruzdev, Yu. V. Blazhevich, P. K. Gorbachev and others). It should be emphasized that systematic research and teaching of sports physiology began in our country earlier than abroad, and were more purposeful. By the way, let us note that it was only in 1989 that the General Assembly of the International Union of Physiological Sciences decided to create a commission "Physiology of Sport" with it, although similar commissions and sections are in the system of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, and the V.I. IP Pavlova Goskomsport of the USSR existed in our country since the 1960s.

The theoretical prerequisites for the emergence and development of sports physiology were created by the fundamental works of I.M.Sechenov, I.P. Pavlov, N.E. Vvedensky, A.A.Ukhtomsky, I.S.Beritashvili, K.M. Bykov and others. However, a systematic study of the physiological foundations of physical culture and sports began much later. Especially great merit in the creation of this section of physiology belongs to L.A. Orbeli and his student A.N. PF Lesgaft and his Department of Physiology - the first such department among physical education universities in the country and in the world.

After the creation in 1919 of the Department of Physiology at the Institute of Physical Education. P.F.Lesgaft teaching this subject carried out by L. A. Orbeli, A. N. Krestovnikov, V. V. Vasilieva, A. B. Gandelsman, E. K. Zhukov, N. V. Zimkin, A. S. Mozzhukhin, E. B. Sologub, A. S. Solodkov, etc. In 1938 A. N. Krestovnikov published the first in our country and in the world "Textbook of Physiology" for the institutes of physical culture, and in 1939 - the monograph "Physiology of Sport". An important role in the further development of teaching the discipline was played by three editions of the "Textbook of Human Physiology" edited by NV Zimkin (1964, 1970, 1975).

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Alexey Solodkov, Elena Sologub
Human physiology. General. Sports. Age

Textbook for higher educational institutions of physical culture

Edition 6, revised and enlarged

Approved by the Ministry of the Russian Federation for Physical Culture and Sports as a textbook for higher educational institutions of physical culture

The publication was prepared at the Department of Physiology of the National State University of Physical Culture, Sports and Health named after P.F. Lesgaft, St. Petersburg

Reviewers:

IN AND. Kuleshov, Dr. med. Sciences, prof. (VmedA named after S.M. Kirov)

THEM. Kozlov, doctor biol, and doctor ped. Sciences, prof.

(NSU named after P.F. Lesgaft, St. Petersburg)

Foreword

Human physiology is the theoretical basis of a number of practical disciplines (medicine, psychology, pedagogy, biomechanics, biochemistry, etc.) · Without understanding the normal course of physiological processes and the constants characterizing them, various specialists cannot correctly assess the functional state of the human body and its performance in various conditions activities. Knowledge of the physiological mechanisms of regulation of various functions of the body is important in understanding the course of recovery processes during and after intense muscular work.

Revealing the main mechanisms that ensure the existence of an integral organism and its interaction with the environment, physiology makes it possible to find out and study the conditions and nature of changes in the activity of various organs and systems in the process of human ontogenesis. Physiology is a science that carries out systems approach in the study and analysis of diverse intra- and intersystem interconnections of a complex human organism and their reduction in specific functional formations and a unified theoretical picture.

It is important to emphasize that Russian researchers play a significant role in the development of modern scientific physiological concepts. Knowledge of the history of any science is a necessary prerequisite for a correct understanding of the place, role and significance of discipline in the content of the socio-political status of society, its influence on this science, as well as the influence of science and its representatives on the development of society. Therefore, consideration of the historical path of development of individual sections of physiology, mention of its most prominent representatives and analysis of the natural science base, on which the basic concepts and concepts of this discipline were formed, make it possible to assess the current state of the subject and determine its further promising directions.

Physiology as an independent discipline began to be taught in 1738 at the Academic (later St. Petersburg) University. A significant role in the development of physiology belongs to the Moscow University, founded in 1755, where the Department of Physiology was opened in its structure in 1776.

Physiology was included in the curriculum at physical education universities from the first days of their organization. Created by P.F. Lesgaft in 1896. For the Higher Courses in Physical Education, a physiology room was immediately opened, the first head of which was Academician I.R. Tarkhanov. In subsequent years, physiology was taught here by N.P. Kravkov, A.A. Walter, P.P. Rostovtsev, V. Ya. Chagovets, A.G. Ginetsinsky, A.A. Ukhtomsky, L.A. Orbeli, I.S. Beritov, A.N. Krestovnikov, G.V. Folbort and others.

After the creation in 1919 of the Department of Physiology at the Institute of Physical Education. P.F. Lesgaft teaching this subject carried out by L.A. Orbeli, A.N. Krestovnikov, V.V. Vasilieva, A.B. Gandelsman, E.K. Zhukov, N.V. Zimkin, A.S. Mozzhukhin, E.B. Sologub, A.S. Solodkov and others. In 1938 A.N. Kreetovnikov published the first in our country and in the world "Textbook of Physiology" for the institutes of physical culture, and in 1939 - the monograph "Physiology of Sports". An important role in the further development of teaching the discipline was played by three editions of the "Textbook of Human Physiology" edited by N.V. Zimkina (1964, 1970, 1975).

The formation of the physiology of sports was largely due to the extensive conduct of fundamental and applied research on the subject. The development of any science poses for representatives of many specialties more and more practical problems, to which the theory can not always and immediately give an unambiguous answer. However, as D. Crowcroft wittily noted (1970), "... scientific research has one strange feature: it has a habit, sooner or later, to be useful for someone or for something." Analysis of the development of educational and scientific directions of sports physiology clearly confirms this position.

By now, significant factual materials on sports and age physiology have been accumulated, presented in the corresponding textbooks and teaching aids. However, in recent years, new data have appeared on some sections of the subject that were not included in previous editions. In addition, due to the constantly changing and supplemented curriculum, the content of the previously published sections of the discipline does not correspond to modern thematic plans according to which teaching is conducted in physical education universities in Russia. With this in mind, the proposed textbook contains systematized, supplemented and, in some cases, new materials within the framework of today's educational and scientific information on the subject. The corresponding sections of the textbook also include the results of the authors' own research.

In 1998-2000. A.S. Solodkov and E.B. Sologub published three textbooks on general, sports and age physiology, which were widely demanded by students, approved by teachers and served as the basis for the preparation of a modern textbook. The textbook published by them in 2001 complies with the new discipline program, the requirements of the State Standard of Higher Professional Education of the Russian Federation and includes three parts - general, sports and age physiology.

All comments and suggestions on the fifth edition, aimed at improving the quality of the textbook, the authors will be gratefully accepted.

Part I
General physiology

1. Introduction. History of physiology

The formation date of modern physiology is 1628, when the English physician and physiologist William Harvey published the results of his research on circulation in animals.

Physiology the science of the functions and mechanisms of activity of cells, tissues, organs, systems and the whole organism as a whole. The physiological function is the manifestation of the vital activity of the organism, which has an adaptive value.

1.1. The subject of physiology, its relationship with other sciences and importance for physical culture and sports

Physiology as a science is inextricably linked with other disciplines. It is based on knowledge of physics, biophysics and biomechanics, chemistry and biochemistry, general biology, genetics, histology, cybernetics, anatomy. In turn, physiology is the basis of medicine, psychology, pedagogy, sociology, theory and methods of physical education. In the process of development of physiological science from general physiology different private sections: physiology of work, physiology of sports, aerospace physiology, physiology of underwater work, developmental physiology, psychophysiology, etc.

General physiology is the theoretical basis for sports physiology. It describes the basic laws of the body activity of people of different ages and sexes, various functional states, the mechanisms of work of individual organs and systems of the body and their interaction. Her practical significance consists in the scientific substantiation of the age stages of the development of the human body, the individual characteristics of individuals, the mechanisms of manifestation of their physical and mental abilities, the characteristics of control and the ability to control the functional state of the body. Physiology reveals the consequences bad habits in humans, substantiates the ways of preventing functional disorders and maintaining health. Knowledge of physiology helps the teacher and coach in the processes of sports selection and sports orientation, in predicting the success of an athlete's competitive activity, in the rational construction of the training process, in ensuring the individualization of physical loads and opens up the possibilities of using the functional reserves of the body.

1.2. Physiological research methods

Physiology is an experimental science. Knowledge about the functions and mechanisms of the body's activity is based on experiments carried out on animals, observations in the clinic, examinations of healthy people in various experimental conditions. Moreover, with regard to healthy person methods are required that are not associated with damage to its tissues and penetration into the body - the so-called non-invasive methods.

In a general form, physiology uses three methodological methods of research: observation, or the "black box" method, poignant experience and chronic experiment.

The classical research methods were removal methods and irritation methods individual parts or whole organs, mainly used in experiments on animals or during operations in the clinic. They gave an approximate idea of the functions of remote or irritated organs and tissues of the body. In this regard, a progressive method for studying the whole organism has become conditioned reflex method, developed by I.P. Pavlov.

In modern conditions, the most common electro-physiological methods, allowing to register electrical processes without changing the current activity of the studied organs and without damaging the integumentary tissues, for example, electrocardiography, electromyography, electroencephalography (registration of the electrical activity of the heart, muscles and brain). Development radio telemetry allows these received records to be transmitted over considerable distances, and computer technologies and special programs provide fine analysis of physiological data. Using infrared photography (thermal imaging) allows you to identify the hottest or coldest parts of the body, observed at rest or as a result of activity. With the help of the so-called computed tomography, without opening the brain, you can see its morphological and functional changes at different depths. New data on the work of the brain and individual parts of the body are provided by the study magnetic vibrations.

1.3. Short story physiology

Observations of the vital activity of the organism have been carried out since time immemorial. In the XIV-XV centuries BC. e. v Ancient egypt when making mummies, people were well acquainted with the internal organs of a person. Ancient medical instruments are depicted in the tomb of the physician Pharaoh Unas. V Ancient China by pulse alone, up to 400 diseases were remarkably finely distinguished. In the IV-V century BC. e. the doctrine of functionally important points of the body was developed there, which has now become the basis for modern developments in reflexology and acupuncture, Su-Jok therapy, testing the functional state of the skeletal muscles of an athlete by the magnitude of tension electric field skin at bioelectrically active points above them. Ancient india became famous for her special herbal recipes, the effect on the body of yoga exercises and breathing exercises. V Ancient Greece the first ideas about the functions of the brain and heart were expressed in the IV-V century BC. e. Hippocrates (460-377 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC), and in Ancient rome in the II century BC. e. - physician Galen (201-131 BC).

As an experimental science, physiology emerged in the 17th century, when the English physician W. Harvey discovered the circles of blood circulation. In the same period, the French scientist R. Descartes introduced the concept of reflex (reflection), describing the path of external information to the brain and the return path of the motor response. The works of the genius Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov and the German physicist G. Helmholtz on the three-component nature of color vision, the treatise of the Czech G. Prochazka on the functions of the nervous system and the observations of the Italian L. Galvani about animal electricity in the nerves and muscles. XVIII century. V 19th century the ideas of the English physiologist C. Sherrington about integrative processes in the nervous system, set forth in his famous monograph in 1906, were developed. The first studies of fatigue by the Italian A. Mosso were carried out. Discovered changes in the constant potentials of the skin during irritation in humans by I.R. Tarkhanov (Tarkhanov phenomenon).

In the XIX century. works of the "father of Russian physiology" THEM. Sechenov (1829-1905) laid the foundations for the development of many areas of physiology - the study of blood gases, the processes of fatigue and "active rest", and most importantly - the discovery in 1862 of inhibition in the central nervous system ("Sechenov inhibition") and the development of the physiological foundations of human mental processes , which showed the reflex nature of human behavioral reactions ("Reflexes of the brain", 1863). Further development of the ideas of I.M. Sechenova followed two paths. On the one hand, the study of fine mechanisms of excitation and inhibition was carried out at St. Petersburg University I.E. Vvedensky (1852-1922). He created the idea of physiological lability as a speed characteristic of excitation and the doctrine of parabiosis as a general reaction of neuromuscular tissue to irritation. Later, this direction was continued by his student A.A. Ukhtomsky (1875-1942), who, studying the processes of coordination in the nervous system, discovered the phenomenon of the dominant (the dominant focus of excitation) and the role in these processes of assimilation of the rhythm of stimuli. On the other hand, under the conditions of a chronic experiment on a whole organism I.P. Pavlov (1849-1936) first created the doctrine of conditioned reflexes and developed a new chapter in physiology - the physiology of higher nervous activity. In addition, in 1904, for his work in the field of digestion, I.P. Pavlov, one of the first Russian scientists, was noted Nobel Prize... Physiological foundations of human behavior, the role of combined reflexes have been developed V.M. Bekhterev.

A major contribution to the development of physiology was made by other outstanding Russian physiologists: the founder of evolutionary physiology and adaptology, Academician L.A. Orbeli; who studied the conditioned reflex influences of the cortex on the internal organs of Acad. K.M. Bykov; the creator of the doctrine of the functional system, acad. PC. Anokhin; founder of Russian electroencephalography, acad. M.N. Lebanon; the developer of space physiology - acad. V.V. Pariah; the founder of the physiology of activity N.A. Bernstein and many others.

In the field of physiology of muscular activity, the founder of the Russian physiology of sports, prof. A.N. Krestovnikov (1885-1955), who wrote the first textbook on human physiology for sports universities in the country (1938) and the first monograph on the physiology of sports (1939), as well as widely known scientists - prof. E.K. Zhukov, V.S. Farfel, N.V. Zimkina, A.S. Mozzhukhin and many others, and among foreign scientists - P.O. Astranda, A. Hill, R. Granita, R. Margaria and others.

2. General laws of physiology and its basic concepts

Living organisms are the so-called open systems (i.e., not closed in themselves, but inextricably linked with the external environment). They consist of proteins and nucleic acids and are characterized by the ability to autoregulate and self-reproduce. The main properties of a living organism are metabolism, irritability (excitability), mobility, self-reproduction (reproduction, heredity) and self-regulation (maintaining homeostasis, adaptability-adaptability).

UDC 612: 796.01 BBK 58.0

Solodkov A.S., Sologub E.B.Physiology of sports:

Textbook / SPbGAFK im. PF Lesgaft. SPb., 1999.231 p.

The manual presents modern data on the main sections of general and specific physiology of sports. The materials correspond to the curriculum in physiology for universities of physical culture and the requirements of the State educational standard of higher professional education.

The manual is intended for students, graduate students, researchers, teachers, coaches and doctors who study and develop the problems of sports physiology and exercise control over persons who are engaged in physical education and sports.

Tab. 9.bibliography thirteen.

Reviewers:

V.I.Kuleshov, Dr. honey. Sciences, prof. (VMedA); O.S. Nasonkin, Ph.D. honey. Sciences, prof. (SPSAFK named after P.F. Lesgaft).
St. Petersburg state academy physical culture them. P.F.Lesgaft, 1999

Foreword

The rapid development of physiology and the acceleration of scientific and technological progress in the country led to the emergence in the 30s of our century of a new independent section of human physiology - the physiology of sports, although individual works devoted to the study of body functions during physical activity were published at the end of the last century (I. O. Rozanov, S. S. Gruzdev, Yu. V. Blazhevich, P. K. Gorbachev and others). It should be emphasized that systematic research and teaching of sports physiology began in our country earlier than abroad and were more purposeful. By the way, we note that only in 1989 the General Assembly of the International Union of Physiological Sciences made a decision to create a commission "Physiology of Sports" with it, although similar commissions and sections are in the system of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, the V.I. I.P. Pavlova and the USSR State Sports Committee have existed in our country since the 1960s.

The theoretical prerequisites for the emergence and development of sports physiology were created by the fundamental works of I.M.Sechenov, I.P. Pavlov, N.E. Vvedensky, A.A.Ukhtomsky, I.S.Beritashvili, K.M.Bykov, and others. However, a systematic study of the physiological foundations of physical culture and sports began much later. Particularly great merit in the creation of this section of physiology belongs to L.A. Orbeli and his student A.N. Krestovnikov, and it is inextricably linked with the formation and development of the Academy of Physical Culture named after P.F. physical culture universities of the country.

The formation of the physiology of sports was largely due to the extensive conduct of fundamental and applied research on the subject. The development of any science poses for representatives of many specialties more and more practical problems, to which the theory can not always and immediately give an unambiguous answer. However, as D. Crowcroft wittily noted (1970), - "... scientific research has one strange feature: it has a habit, sooner or later, to be useful for someone or for something." Analysis of the development of educational and scientific directions of sports physiology clearly confirms this position.

Knowledge of the history of any science is a necessary prerequisite for a correct understanding of the place, role and significance of discipline in the content of the socio-political status of society, its influence on this science, as well as science and its representatives on the development of society. Therefore, consideration of the historical path of development of sports physiology, mention of its most prominent representatives and analysis of the natural-scientific basis, on which the basic concepts and concepts of this discipline were formed, make it possible to assess the current state of the subject and determine promising directions for its further development.

To date, there are significant factual materials on the physiology of sports, set out in the relevant textbooks and teaching aids. However, in recent years, new data have appeared on some sections of the subject that were not included in previous editions. In addition, due to the constantly changing and supplemented curriculum, the content of the previously published sections of the discipline does not correspond to the modern thematic plans according to which teaching is conducted in physical education universities in Russia. Taking into account the above, the presentation of the supplemented and a number of new materials in the framework of today's educational and scientific information is devoted to this textbook, in which the general and private parts of sports physiology are highlighted. The corresponding sections of the manual also include the results of the authors' own research.

The authors are aware that when summary part of the material in the manual did not find a sufficiently complete and comprehensive presentation. They will gratefully accept all comments and suggestions aimed at its further improvement.

PART ONE

GENERAL SPORT PHYSIOLOGY

SPORT PHYSIOLOGY -

EDUCATIONAL AND SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINE.
Physiology of sports is both educational and scientific discipline. Its study is carried out in all higher and secondary physical education educational institutions, at the faculties of physical education of pedagogical universities, as well as at individual departments public universities and medical universities. In the teaching of the subject, the practical activities of coaches, physiologists and sports doctors, materials obtained during the implementation of research works are used, which are carried out in the relevant research institutes, laboratories and departments.

Physiology of sports, its content and objectives.

Physiology of sports- this is a special section of human physiology that studies changes in body functions and their mechanisms under the influence of muscular (sports) activity and substantiates practical measures to increase its effectiveness.

Physiology of sports in its place in the system of training specialists in physical culture and sports is associated with three groups of educational and scientific disciplines. The first group is made up of fundamental sciences, in which is based physiology of sports, it uses their theoretical achievements, research methods and information about the environmental factors with which the athlete's body interacts in the process of training and competitive activity. These disciplines include biology, human and animal physiology, chemistry and physics.

The second group includes educational and scientific disciplines that interact with the physiology of sports in such a way that they mutually enrich or complement each other. In this regard, the physiology of sports is closely related to anatomy, biochemistry, biomechanics, hygiene and psychology.

And, finally, the third group of disciplines with which the physiology of sports is associated are those that use its scientific achievements and research methods for their own purposes. These include the theory and methodology of physical culture, pedagogy, sports and pedagogical disciplines, sports medicine, physiotherapy exercises.

The physiology of sports includes two relatively independent and at the same time interconnected parts. The content of the first - general sports physiology - are the physiological foundations of adaptation to physical stress and reserve capabilities of the body, functional changes and state of the body during sports activities, as well as the physical performance of an athlete and the physiological basis of fatigue and recovery in sports. Second part - private sports physiology - includes the physiological classification of physical exercises, mechanisms and patterns of the formation and development of motor qualities and skills, sports performance in special conditions external environment, physiological characteristics of training women and children of different ages, physiological foundations of mass forms of health-improving physical culture.

One of the important tasks of sports physiology is the scientific substantiation, development and implementation of measures that ensure the achievement of high sports results and the preservation of the health of athletes. Hence, physiology of sports is an applied and mainly preventive science , since, exploring and taking into account the reserve capabilities of the human body, it substantiates the ways and means of increasing efficiency, accelerating recovery processes, preventing overwork, overstrain and pathological changes in body functions, as well as preventing the occurrence of various diseases.

A distinctive methodological feature of sports physiology is that its materials can be obtained only on humans, where the use of a number of classical methods of physiology is impossible. In this regard, only individual refinement experiments, as a rule, with the aim of studying the mechanisms of physiological changes during physical exertion, are carried out on animals. It is also important to emphasize that the main task of sports physiology is a comparative study of the functional state of the human body, i.e. the study is carried out before, during and after physical activity, which is very difficult in natural conditions. Therefore, special stress tests have been developed that make it possible to dose physical activity and register the corresponding changes in body functions at different periods of human activity. For this purpose, a bicycle ergometer, a treadmill (treadmill), steps of different heights are used, as well as various devices that allow registering the functions of the cardiovascular, respiratory, muscular and central nervous systems at a distance, transmitting the corresponding indicators through telemetric channels.

Physiology of sports occupies an important place in the theory of physical culture, forming the foundation of knowledge necessary for a coach and teacher to achieve high sports results and maintain the health of athletes. Therefore, the trainer and teacher should be well aware of the changes in the physiological processes occurring in the athlete's body during training and competitive activities in order to scientifically build and improve this work, be able to reason their orders and recommendations, avoid overwork and overstrain and not harm health. exercising. They also need to understand the essence of the changes that occur in the athlete's body during the rehabilitation period in order to actively and competently influence them, accelerating the recovery reactions.

Thus, it follows from the above that physiology of sports as an educational and scientific discipline, solves two main problems. One of them consists in the physiological substantiation of the laws of strengthening human health. with the help of physical exercises and increasing the resistance of his body to the action of various unfavorable environmental factors (temperature, pressure, radiation, air and water pollution, infections, etc.), as well as in the preservation and restoration of working capacity, preventing the development of early fatigue and correction psycho-emotional overload in the process of a person's professional activity. These tasks of sports physiology are solved within the framework of mass forms of physical culture.

The second problem of sports physiology lies in the physiological substantiation of activities aimed at achieving high sports results, especially in big sports. These two problems do not completely coincide, since in order to achieve the highest results in the process of training, in a number of cases, such loads are used that can lead to a decrease in the body's resistance to adverse environmental influences, deterioration of health and even the occurrence of diseases.

Based on the foregoing, it becomes obvious that the physiological characteristics of body functions should be studied and evaluated separately both in relation to mass physical culture and physical training of special contingents (military personnel, firefighters, geologists, students, schoolchildren and some other categories), and in relation to various sports, especially elite sports.

Department of Physiology, St. PF Lesgaft and its role in the formation and development of sports physiology.

By the decree of the Council of People's Commissars of October 22, 1919, on the basis of the Higher Courses in Physical Education, the Institute of Physical Education named after A. P.F. Lesgaft (in 1929 transformed into the P.F.

The organized department from 1919 to 1927 was headed by Leon Abgarovich Orbeli, later a full member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR and the Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR, Hero of Socialist Labor, laureate of USSR State Prizes, Colonel General of the Medical Service, honorary member of a number of foreign academies. Already in those years, under the leadership of L.A. Orbeli carried out the first research works on the effect of physical activity on the body. However, the subject was mainly taught according to the curriculum of medical institutes in the form of lecturing and performing individual laboratory classes in the course of general physiology with some emphasis on the section "Physiology of muscles". In the applied plan, only certain medical issues related to the influence of physical exercises on the body were covered. This content of the discipline reflected at that time the objective state of scientific knowledge in the field of physiology of muscle activity both in our country and abroad. It was the initial, first, period of the formation of the physiology of sports.

After leaving the institute of L.A. Orbeli, Aleksey Nikolaevich Krestovnikov was elected the head of the department of physiology for 28 years - from 1927 to 1955. During this period, the staff of the department carried out a lot of work on the collection of functional indicators of the body of athletes under the influence of various physical exercises and the analysis of their changes. The generalized material allowed Professor A. N. Krestovnikov to publish the first textbook of physiology for the institutes of physical culture in our country (1938) and the first monograph on the physiology of sports (1939). The publication of these books made it possible to single out and finally form in human physiology a new educational and scientific sections of the subject - the physiology of sports. From this time begins the second, transitional, period of development of sports physiology (1930-1950s) as an educational and scientific discipline. From 1955 to 1960 the department is headed by Professor Evgraf Konstantinovich Zhukov.

Modern, third, period of development of sports physiology (1960-1990s) is characterized by the creation of a systematic educational and scientific sections of the discipline, corresponding to the new tasks of training highly qualified, competent specialists in physical culture and sports. The curriculum of this period reflects two interrelated parts of the subject (general and specific sports physiology). Since that time, sports physiologists begin to study not only the effect of individual physical loads on the functions of the body, but also the effect of systematic training and their features on the functional state of athletes, especially in the process of achieving higher sportsmanship.

Professor Nikolai Vasilievich Zimkin, who headed the Department of Physiology from 1961 to 1975, played an important role in the formation of the modern course in sports physiology. and published three editions of the textbook "Human Physiology" under his editorship (1964, 1970, 1975). Research in the field of blood circulation, neuromuscular apparatus, electroencephalography is intensively developing, the physiology of stress conditions in sports is being studied. Doctoral dissertations are defended by V.V. Vasiliev. E. B. Sologub, Yu. 3. Zakharyants. In the period 1975-1984. the department is headed by the Honored Scientist of the RSFSR, Professor Alexander Sergeevich Mozzhukhin. The main direction of research work is the study of the functional reserves of the athlete. Throughout 1984-1986. The duties of the head of the department are temporarily performed by Honored Worker of Higher Education of Russia, Professor Elena Borisovna Sologub. Since 1986, the department has been headed by the Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation, Professor Aleksey Sergeevich Solodkov. The scientific interests of the team focus on the problem of physiological adaptation of the body of athletes to physical activity.

With a highly qualified staff, the Department of Physiology has made a great contribution to the training of scientific and pedagogical personnel and the preparation of curricula, textbooks and teaching aids for institutes and technical schools of physical culture. So, from 1935 (when the defense of dissertations was introduced) to 1998, 13 doctoral and 160 master's theses were successfully defended under the guidance of the department staff (including foreign graduate students from Cuba, China, India, Egypt and Poland).

The staff of the department took part in the compilation of all published from 1938 to 1990. 11 educational programs and 10 textbooks on physiology for institutes of physical culture. At the same time, the editors of 8 educational programs and 6 textbooks were the heads of the Department of Physiology of the G. PF Lesgaft. In 13 textbooks on sports and pedagogical disciplines, chapters on the physiological characteristics of physical exercises were also written by the staff of the Department of Physiology. The department prepared and published 8 teaching aids in the form of workshops on conducting laboratory classes in physiology, 7 special textbooks were published for students of the correspondence faculty and 4 - for technical schools of physical culture. More than 30 lectures have been published on various issues of the physiological characteristics of physical exercises.

The research work of the teachers covered all the main sections of physiology: nervous and muscular systems, sensory organs, blood circulation and respiration, excretion, internal secretion, as well as special problems of sports physiology: adaptation to physical activity, functional reserves of the athlete's body, fatigue and recovery, etc. Dozens of scientific works are published annually on various issues of sports physiology. From 1939 to 1990, the staff of the department published 20 monographs directly related to the physiology of sports, some of them were translated abroad (Bulgaria, Germany, Poland, Romania, Greece, Czechoslovakia).

The highly qualified staff of the Department of Physiology constantly attracted the attention of the teaching staff of other institutes, especially the newly formed ones. Since the pre-war years, the department trained teachers of a number of physical culture institutes and physical education faculties of pedagogical institutes, physical culture institutes of socialist countries and some medical universities. In the last 5 years alone, about 40 people have completed such an internship at the department. In addition, professional development of teachers from these institutes in the specialization "physiology" is regularly carried out in the IPC and PC of our university.

The role of the department staff in the field of organizational activities is also essential. So, A.N. Krestovnikov until 1955 headed the methodological commission on physiology of the All-Union Committee on Physical Culture and Sports under the Council of Ministers of the USSR, N.V. Zimkin from 1962 to 1976 along with the leadership of this Commission was the chairman of the scientific commission on physiology , biomechanics, morphology and biochemistry of sports, chairman of the coordination commission for teaching biomedical disciplines and a member of the Presidium of the Scientific Council at the USSR State Sports Committee. A.S. Mozzhukhin from 1976 to 1985 was a member of the methodological commission of the State Committee for Sports of the USSR and was the chairman of the Council of Heads of the Department of Physiology of the Institutes of Physical Culture of the RSFSR, and A.S. Solodkov is a member of the Scientific Council of the USSR Goskomsport for Biological Sciences, chairman of the "Physiology of Sports" section of the Problem Commission of the USSR Academy of Sciences and the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, and currently heads the "Physiology of Sports" section of the St. IM Sechenov and is a member of the Board of this society.

In recent years, the staff of the department has been doing a lot of work on restructuring and improving the teaching of physiology and conducting scientific research. In accordance with the new curriculum and the new program in physiology, the work programs and thematic plans of lectures and laboratory classes in the subject have been revised. Taking into account the fact that the number of lecture hours in the new program has been significantly reduced, the lectures are predominantly problematic. Laboratory classes are conducted in such a way that they contribute to understanding the essence, mechanisms and features of the regulation of physiological processes during muscle activity, mastering research methods, and instilling research skills in students.

The implementation of the new curriculum for the multilevel structure of higher physical education requires the creation of special educational and professional programs in physiology, taking into account the training of bachelors, graduates and masters of science. The solution of these problems is especially important and a priority for the department because our academy has developed its own version of the curriculum for the implementation of the multi-level structure of higher physical education in Russia.

For the successes achieved in educational and scientific work and in connection with the 75th anniversary of the founding of the department in April 1995, by the decision of the Academic Council of the Academy, it was named after Professor A.N. Krestovnikov, and two of his personal scholarships were established for students.

1.3. State and prospects for the development of sports physiology.

The main educational and scientific developments in the physiology of sports began for the first time and are inextricably linked with the history of the development of the Department of Physiology of the Institute of Physical Culture named after PF Lesgaft. A feature of the activity of the Department of Physiology was the creation of scientific laboratories with it in the main sections of the physiology of sports.

The carried out researches in these laboratories made it possible to obtain new data on sports bioenergetics and to carry out the classification of sports exercises taking into account their energy characteristics (A. B. Gandelsman); a technique was developed for non-invasive determination of the composition of skeletal muscles and the mechanisms of development of motor skills were revealed (N.V. Zimkin); revealed the phenomenon of potential synchronization on electromyograms during fatigue (EK Zhukov); the peculiarities of vascular reactions in athletes of various specializations were determined (V.V. Vasilieva); an original method of recording electroencephalograms was created directly in the process of high-intensity muscular work, and for the first time the cortical mechanisms of regulation of movements of athletes were investigated (EB Sologub); the emotions of competitive activity were studied (S. A. Razumov); the idea of the physiological reserves of an athlete was developed (A.S. Mozzhukhin); substantiated the doctrine of the functional system of adaptation of athletes (A.S. Solodkov) and others.

In the future, the study of various problems of the physiology of sports in our country was significantly expanded and deepened, but in most cases, methodological approaches were used, developed at the Department of Physiology of the Institute of Physical Culture. PF Lesgaft. Currently, research is being carried out in all educational and research institutes of physical culture, in many universities, medical and pedagogical universities. The role and significance of all physiological systems of the body during muscular activity, as well as priority problems for the physiology of sports, are being studied: adaptation to physical stress, performance, fatigue and recovery of athletes, functional reserves of the body, etc.

Elucidation of the issue of extrapolation processes in the central nervous system is essential for substantiating the variability of loads in the process of sports training. Only on the basis of this concept can the training process be correctly built, in which the magnitude, speed and intensity of loads must vary, which is not always taken into account by doctors, coaches and athletes. It is also necessary to take into account the age-related dynamics of human locomotor functions.

The priority directions of further studies of the physiology of the central nervous system are the elucidation of the peculiarities of the formation and mobilization of the functional reserves of the brain of athletes and the study of rearrangements of the cortical functional systems of interrelated activity in the process of their adaptation to specialized loads. Considerable attention should be paid to studies of the evoked activity of the cerebral cortex and spinal cord, as well as the role of functional asymmetry and sensory systems in the formation of certain special motor skills.

In recent years, a new direction of sports physiology has been developing, associated with the development of sports genetics and considering the features of hereditary influences and trainability of various physiological indicators and physical qualities and, first of all, the role of innate individual-typological characteristics of the organism for sports orientation, selection and prediction of achievements in sports. ...

Favorable changes occurring in the body, and in particular in the cardiovascular system during physical education and sports are obvious. However, not all questions of this section of sports cardiology have been resolved, and the study of functional shifts cannot be considered complete. The possibility of the development of pathological changes in the heart (pathological sports heart, according to G.F. Lang), which can arise primarily as a result of excessive training loads, exceeding the capabilities of a particular athlete, requires further research. Difficulties in the study and prevention of a number of diseases in athletes lie in the fact that at present there is no developed and scientifically grounded course in the pathological physiology of sports, the need for which is very obvious.

Until now, there are no data concerning the effectiveness of different combinations of the pace of movements and the frequency of respiration in various sports, as well as the nature and degree of voluntary corrections of external respiration.

Until now, the question of the duration of recovery after intense training and competitive loads remains controversial.

Touching upon some special theoretical issues that have undoubted applied significance in sports, it is necessary first of all to point out the problems of adaptation to physical loads, functional reserves of the body, sports biorhythmology, psychophysiological and medical selection and professional orientation of athletes. In particular, the immediate tasks are to determine the quantitative criteria of various stages of adaptation, to analyze the adaptive functional systems that are formed in various types of sports activity, to differentiate adaptive changes from pre-pathological states and to study compensatory reactions.

For many years, research has been carried out on the various functions of the body of athletes. However, complex surveys are carried out relatively rarely, and the analysis of their results is associated with long-term processing of the data obtained. In this regard, in the physiology of sports, the so-called express methods are acquiring great importance, which make it possible to assess the functional state of an athlete not only after, but also during training and competition. The important tasks of sports physiologists are also the substantiation, development and implementation of express methods in order to study the functional systems of adaptation that are formed to various types of physical exercises. The use of computers will make it possible to quickly analyze and generalize the results obtained by various research methods, and immediately implement the most important and informative ones into practice.

Speaking about mass physical culture, the following should be taken into account. The applied loads should cause changes corresponding only to the stage of increasing the nonspecific resistance (adaptation) of the organism. It is also necessary to prevent the possibility of injury. All this also applies to the physical training of special contingents: military personnel, rescue teams, etc. Special attention deserve physical education with children, women, people with disabilities and people with poor health. Further development and scientific substantiation of a number of physiological problems associated with the age and medico-biological characteristics of these contingents of persons, the nature of their adaptive rearrangements are required.

In the coming years, in mass physical culture, it is necessary to solve the questions about the minimum amount of physical exercises with their various combinations and the required duration of classes, which together will allow to obtain a sufficient health-improving effect in relation to people's resistance to the action of unfavorable environmental factors and maintaining high mental and physical performance. This kind of research is complex, voluminous, but urgently needed. At the same time, the minimum norms of load and time during physical exercises, obviously, will not be the same for people of different age, health status, sex, profession, which will require a differentiated approach to research in different groups of the population. At the same time, it should be emphasized that until now the main attention of researchers was paid to sports, especially sports of the highest achievements. Physical culture of a mass character is on the sidelines, and functional changes, adaptive restructuring are studied to a lesser extent.

The intensively developing practice of physical culture and sports requires the fastest implementation of applied areas of sports physiology. At the same time, we should once again recall the well-known provision that without developing deeply theoretical problems and without conducting fundamental research, we will constantly lag behind in practice. It is useful to recall the words of the famous Italian physicist and physiologist Alessandro Volta, said by him back in 1815: "There is nothing more practical than a good theory."

2. ADAPTATION TO PHYSICAL EXERCISES AND RESERVE CAPABILITIES OF THE BODY.
One of the most important problems of modern physiology and medicine is the study of the laws of the process of adaptation of the body to various environmental factors. Human adaptation affects wide range general biological laws, the interests of workers in various scientific disciplines and is associated, first of all, with the self-regulation of multicomponent functional systems. It is no coincidence that the problem of human adaptation is one of the main sections of the extensive International Biological Program.

Currently, there are a number of definitions of adaptation. In our opinion, the most complete is the concept of physiological adaptation, given in the third edition of the Great Soviet Encyclopedia: "Physiological adaptation is a set of physiological reactions underlying the body's adaptation to changes in environmental conditions and aimed at maintaining the relative constancy of its internal environment - homeostasis." (M., 1969. T.]. S. 216).

The importance of the problem of adaptation in sports is determined primarily by the fact that the athlete's body must adapt to physical activity in a relatively short time. It is the speed of onset of adaptation and its duration that largely determine the state of health and fitness of an athlete. In this regard, the development of a systemic justification for the adaptation of the organism in the process of achieving higher sportsmanship is of considerable scientific interest for the practice of sports. At the same time, it is well known that the morphological and functional characteristics of the human body, formed over a long period of evolution, cannot change as quickly as the structure and nature of training and competitive loads in sports change. The discrepancy in time between these processes can lead to the emergence of functional disorders, which are manifested by various pathological disorders.

2.1. The dynamics of body functions during adaptation and its stages.
Determination of functional changes that occur during training and competitive loads is necessary, first of all, to assess the adaptation process, the degree of fatigue, the level of fitness and working capacity of athletes and is the basis for improving recovery measures. The effect of physical activity on a person can be judged only on the basis of a comprehensive consideration of the totality of reactions of the whole organism, including reactions from the central nervous system, hormonal apparatus, cardiovascular and respiratory systems, analyzers, metabolism, etc. It should be emphasized that the severity of changes in functions organism in response to physical activity depends primarily on the individual characteristics of a person and the level of his fitness. Changes in the functional indicators of the body of athletes can be correctly analyzed and comprehensively assessed only when considering them in relation to the adaptation process.

2nd ed., Rev. and add. - M .: 2005 .-- 528 p.

The textbook was prepared in accordance with the new physiology program for universities of physical culture and the requirements of the State Standard of Higher Professional Education. The textbook is intended for students, graduate students, researchers, teachers, trainers and doctors working in the field of physical culture.

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CONTENT
Foreword ................................................. ................................................ 3
Part I GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY .............................................. ..................................... 7
1. Introduction. History of physiology ................................................ ................ 7
1.1. The subject of physiology, its relationship with other sciences and importance for physical culture and sports ........... 7
1.2. Physiological research methods ......................................... 8
1.3. A Brief History of Physiology ............................................... ............9
2. General laws of physiology and its basic concepts ................. 10
2.1. The main functional characteristics of excitable tissues ... 11
2.2. Nervous and humoral regulation of functions ................................. 12
2.3. Reflex mechanism of the nervous system .............. 13
2.4. Homeostasis ................................................. .......................................14
2.5. The emergence of arousal and its conduct ............................. 15
3. Nervous system .............................................. ........................................eighteen
3.1. The main functions of the central nervous system ............................................... ................eighteen
3.2. The main functions and interactions of neurons .......................... 19
3.3. Features of the activity of the nerve centers ................................. 22
3.4. Coordination of the activity of the central nervous system ............................................... .... 26
3.5. Functions of the spinal cord and subcortical regions of the brain ................................... 30
3.6. Autonomic nervous system ............................................... ......... 35
3.7. Limbic system ................................................ ...................... 38
3.8. Functions of the cerebral cortex ............................................. 39
4. Higher nervous activity ............................................. ................... 44
4.1. Conditions of education and varieties of conditioned reflexes ......... 44
4.2. External and internal inhibition of conditioned reflexes .............. 47
4.3. Dynamic stereotype ................................................ ................ 48
4.4. Types of higher nervous activity, I and II signaling systems. 48
5. Neuromuscular apparatus ............................................ ........................50
5.1. Functional organization of skeletal muscles ........................... 50
5.2. Mechanisms of contraction and relaxation of muscle fibers ... 52
5.3. Solitary and tetanic contraction. Electromyogram ......... 54
5.4. Morphofunctional bases of muscle strength ......................... 57
5.5. Muscle work modes ............................................... ................... 60
5.6. Energy of muscle contraction .............................................. 62
6. Free movement .............................................. .......................... 64
6.1. Basic principles of the organization of movements ............................... 64
6.2. The role of various parts of the central nervous system in the regulation of postural-tonic reactions ............................ 67
6.3. The role of various parts of the central nervous system in the regulation of movements .................. 70
6.4. Descending motor systems ............................................... ..... 73
7. Sensory systems .............................................. ................................... 75
7.1. General plan of the organization and function of sensory systems .............. 75
7.2. Classification and mechanisms of receptor excitation ................. 76
7.3. Receptor properties ................................................ ...................... 77
7.4. Information coding ................................................ ............. 79
7.5. Visual sensory system ............................................... ......... 80
7.6. Auditory sensory system ............................................... ............ 85
7.7. Vestibular sensory system ............................................... ... 87
7.8. Motor sensory system ............................................... ..... 90
7.9. Sensory systems of the skin, internal organs, taste and smell ............................ 93
7.10. Processing, interaction and the meaning of sensory information ........................... 95
8. Blood ............................................... ..................................... 99
8.1. Composition, volume and function of blood ............................................ ......one hundred
8.2. Corpuscular elements of blood ............................................... ......... 101
8.3. Physicochemical characteristics blood plasma ............................... 105
8.4. Blood clotting and transfusion .............................................. 107
8.5. Regulation of the blood system ............................................... .............. 110
9. Blood circulation ............................................... ............................. 111
9.1. The heart and its physiological properties ...................................... 111
9.2. The movement of blood through the vessels (hemodynamics) ............................... 116
9.3. Regulation of the cardiovascular system ..................................... 120
10. Breathing ............................................... .................................... 123
10.1. External respiration ................................................ ....................... 124
10.2. Gas exchange in the lungs and their transport by blood ................................ 126
10.3. Respiration regulation ................................................ .................. 129
11. Digestion ............................................... ............................... 131
11.1. general characteristics digestive processes ................. 131
11.2. Digestion in various parts of the gastrointestinal tract ............................... 133
11.3. Absorption of food digestion products ............................. 139
12. Metabolism and energy ............................................ ....................... 140
12.1. Protein metabolism ................................................ .............................. 140
12.2. Metabolism of carbohydrates ................................................ ......................... 141
12.3. Lipid metabolism ................................................ ........................... 142
12.4. Exchange of water and mineral salts ............................................. 143
12.5. Energy exchange ................................................ ........................... 145
12.6. Regulation of metabolism and energy ........................................ 147
13. Isolation ....................................: .......... .................................... 149
13.1. General characteristics of excretory processes ..................... 149
13.2. Kidneys and their functions .............................................. .................... 149
13.3. The process of urination and its regulation ................................ 151
13.4. Homeostatic function of the kidneys ............................................... 153
13.5. Urination and urination ............................................. 154
13.6. Sweating ................................................. ........................... 154
14. Heat exchange .............................................. ............................. 156
14.1. Human body temperature and isothermia ..................................... 156
14.2. Heat generation mechanisms ................................................ .... 157
14.3. Heat transfer mechanisms ................................................ ............. 158
14.4. Regulation of heat exchange ................................................ .............. 159
15. Internal secretion .............................................. ............................ 160
15.1. General characteristics of the endocrine system ........................... 160
15.2. Functions of the endocrine glands ........................................ 163
15.3. Changes in endocrine functions in various conditions ................................. 173
Part II SPORT PHYSIOLOGY .............................................. ................... 178
Section GENERAL SPORT PHYSIOLOGY .............................................. ......... 178
1. Sports physiology- academic and scientific discipline ................ 179
1.1. Sports physiology, its content and tasks ....................... 179
1.2. Department of Physiology, St. Petersburg State Academy of Physical Culture. P.F. Lesgaft and its role in the formation and development of sports physiology. 181
1.3. The state and prospects for the development of sports physiology ..... 185
2. Adaptation to physical activity and reserve capacity of the body ........................ 188
2.1. The dynamics of body functions during adaptation and its stage .......... 189
2.2. Physiological features of adaptation to physical activity ............................ 193
2.3. Urgent and long-term adaptation to physical activity ..... 195
2.4. Functional adaptation system ............................................ 198
2.5. The concept of the physiological reserves of the body, their characteristics and classification ......... 201
3. Functional changes in the body during physical exertion ....... 203
3.1. Changes in the functions of various organs and systems of the body ... 203
3.2. Functional shifts at constant power loads ..... 205
3.3. Functional shifts at loads of variable power ... 206
3.4. The applied value of functional changes for the assessment of athletes' performance ... 208
4. Physiological characteristics of the organism's states during sports activity ............ 209
4.1. The role of emotions in sports activities ................................ 209
4.2. Prelaunch states ................................................ ............. 213
4.3. Warming up and running ............................................... .............. 215
4.4. Steady state during cyclic exercises ............... 217
4.5. Special states of the body during acyclic, static and variable power exercises 218
5. Physical performance of an athlete .......................................... 219
5.1. The concept of physical performance and methodological approaches to its definition ........ 220
5.2. Principles and methods of testing physical performance ............................ 221
5.3. The connection between physical performance and the orientation of the training process in sports ... 227
5.4. Physical performance reserves ...................................... 228
6. Physiological bases of fatigue of athletes .............................. 233
6.1. Definition and physiological mechanisms of development of fatigue ........................... 233
6.2. Fatigue factors and the state of body functions ................. 236
6.3. Features of fatigue with various types of physical activity ......................... 239
6.4. Prefatigue, chronic fatigue and overwork ......... 241
7. Physiological characteristics of recovery processes ........ 243
7.1. General characteristics of recovery processes ....................... 244
7.2. Physiological mechanisms of recovery processes ... 246
7.3. Physiological patterns of recovery processes ........................... 248
7.4. Physiological measures to increase the efficiency of recovery .................. 250
Section II PRIVATE SPORT PHYSIOLOGY ............................................. ....... 253
8. Physiological classification and characteristics of physical exercises ................... 253
8.1. Different criteria for the classification of exercises ...................... 253
8.2. Modern classification physical exercise ............... 254
8.3. Physiological characteristics of sports postures and static loads ................ 256
8.4. Physiological characteristics of standard cyclic and acyclic movements ... 259
8.5. Physiological characteristics of non-standard movements ....... 263
9. Physiological mechanisms and patterns of development of physical qualities ............. 266
9.1. Forms of manifestation, mechanisms of development of strength .......... 266
9.2. Forms of manifestation, mechanisms and reserves of development of speed ....... 270
9.3. Forms of manifestation, mechanisms and reserves of endurance development ....................... 273
9.4. The concept of agility and flexibility; mechanisms and patterns of their development ............... 278
10. Physiological mechanisms and patterns of motor skills formation ....... 279
10.1. Motor skills, skills and methods of their research ........ 279
110.2. Physiological mechanisms of motor skills formation ..................... 280
10.3. Physiological patterns and stages of motor skills formation ......... 283
10.4. Physiological foundations of motor skills improvement ..................... 289
11. Physiological basis for the development of fitness ........................ 292
11.1. Physiological characteristics of training and the state of fitness ............... 292
11.2. Testing the functional fitness of athletes at rest .................... 294
11.3. Testing the functional readiness of athletes under standard and extreme loads. 297
11.4. Physiological characteristics of overtraining and overstrain ......... 300
12. Sports performance in special environmental conditions ....... 303
12.1. Influence of air temperature and humidity on sports performance ......... 303
12.2. Sports performance under conditions of changed barometric pressure ... 305
12.3. Sports performance when changing belt-climatic conditions ........ 309
12.4. Physiological changes in the body during swimming .......... 310
13. Physiological foundations of sports training for women .............. 313
13.1. Morphological and functional characteristics of the female body ....... 313
13.2. Changes in body functions during training ............ 320
13.3. The influence of the biological cycle on the performance of women ... 324
13.4. Individualization of the training process, taking into account the phases of the biological cycle ... 327
14. Physiological and genetic characteristics of sports selection ............... 329
14.1. Physiological and genetic approach to sports selection ..................... 330
14.2. Hereditary influences on morphological and functional characteristics and physical qualities of a person.332
14.3. Taking into account the physiological and genetic characteristics of a person in sports selection ................. 336
14.4. The value of genetically adequate and inadequate choice of sports specialization, style of competitive activity and sensorimotor dominance.343
14.5. Using Genetic Markers to Find High and Fast Trained Athletes ... 347
15. Physiological foundations of health-improving physical culture ...... 350
15.1. The role of physical culture in the conditions of modern life ..... 350
15.2. Hypokinesia, physical inactivity and their effect on the human body ......................... 353
15.3. Neuropsychic stress, monotony of activity and their effect on the human body ... 355
15.4. The main forms of health-improving physical culture and their influence on the functional state of the body. 358
Part III AGE PHYSIOLOGY .............................................. ........ 364
1. General physiological patterns of growth and development of the human body ........... 364
1.1. Periodization and heterochronism of development ................................. 364
1.2. Sensitive periods ................................................ .................. 366
1.3. The influence of heredity and the environment on the development of the organism ....................... 369
1.4. Epoch-making and individual acceleration, biological and passport age ............. 371
2. Physiological characteristics of the body of preschool and primary school children and their adaptation to physical activity 375
2.1. Development of the central nervous system, higher nervous activity and sensory systems ... 375
2.2. Physical development and musculoskeletal system ................. 382
2.3. Features of blood, blood circulation and respiration ........................ 383
2.4. Features of digestion, metabolism and energy .............. 386
2.5. Features of thermoregulation, processes of excretion and activity of endocrine glands ..... 388
2.6. Physiological features of adaptation of preschool and primary school children to physical activity.391
3. Physiological characteristics of the organism of children of middle and senior school age and their adaptation to physical activity. 411
3.1. Development of the central nervous system, higher nervous activity and sensory systems ... 411
3.2. Physical development and musculoskeletal system ................. 416
3.3. Features of blood, blood circulation, respiration .......................... 419
3.4. Features of digestion, excretion and endocrine system 422
3.5. Features of thermoregulation, metabolism and energy .......... 427
3.6. Physiological characteristics of adaptation of children of middle and senior school age to physical activity ... 429
4. Physiological features of a physical education lesson at school .. 448
4.1. Physiological substantiation of the rationing of physical activity for school-age children ........ 449
4.2. Changes in the functions of the body of schoolchildren at the physical culture lesson .............................. 451
4.3. The influence of physical education on the physical, functional development, working capacity of schoolchildren and their state of health.453
4.4. Physiological and pedagogical control over physical culture lessons and physiological criteria for the recovery of the body of schoolchildren. 460
5. Physiological characteristics of the body of people of mature and old age and their adaptation to physical activity ........ 465
5.1. Aging, life expectancy, adaptive responses and reactivity of the body ................................. 465
5.2. Age features of the musculoskeletal system, autonomic and sensory systems ..................... 468
5.3. Age features of regulatory systems ............................ 473
5.4. Physiological features of adaptation of people of mature and old age to physical activity ... 476
6. Physiological features of information processing among athletes of different ages ....................... 487
6.1. The value of information processing processes for sports and their age characteristics ..................... 487
6.2. Physiological foundations of the processes of perception, decision-making and programming of response actions ... 489
6.3. The speed and efficiency of tactical thinking. The bandwidth of the brain ....................... 492
6.4. Noise immunity of athletes, its age characteristics .. 495
7. Functional asymmetries of athletes of different ages .............. 496
7.1. Motor asymmetries in humans, their age characteristics .. 496
7.2. Sensory and mental asymmetries. Individual asymmetry profile ................ 498
7.3. Manifestation of functional asymmetry in athletes .......... 501
7.4. Physiological foundations of training process control taking into account functional asymmetry ..... 505
8. Physiological foundations of individual-typological characteristics of athletes and their development in ontogenesis. 507
8.1. Individual-typological characteristics of a person .............. 508
8.2. Development of typological features of vontogenesis .................. 510
8.3. Individual-typological characteristics of athletes and their families in the training process ... 512
8.4. Individual-typological features of biorhythms and their influence on human performance ... 515
Conclusion ..... 520

Author Alexander Sergeevich Solodkov

Alexey Solodkov, Elena Sologub Human physiology. General. Sports. Age

Foreword

Part I General physiology

1. Introduction. History of physiology

2. General laws of physiology and its basic concepts

Foreword

PART ONE

Alexey Solodkov, Elena Sologub
Human physiology. General. Sports. Age

Part I
General physiology