In the second half of the nineteenth century. Russia in the second half of the 19th century

History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 20th century Nikolaev Igor Mikhailovich

Russian culture in the second half of the XIX century.

The abolition of serfdom, other reforms of the 60-70s. 19th century led to serious changes in the social, economic and political life of the country. The confrontation between the revolutionaries and the autocracy had a certain influence on literature and art. Social sharpness - characteristic many works of literature, drama, painting of the post-reform period, sometimes with photographic accuracy reflecting the dramatic events that took place in Russia. A new phenomenon in the second half of the nineteenth century. there was a wide entry into the literature and art of raznochintsy. These people from different walks of life, often from the lower classes, tried to convey their bitter life experience in their work.

Literature . In the works of Russian writers of the second half of the nineteenth century. one way or another, the pressing issues of post-reform life were reflected. Despite differences in origin, political views, and attitudes towards religion, most writers were united by artistic realism. Whatever they wrote about, their thoughts revolved around problems related to the search for the meaning of life, social justice, sympathy for the "humiliated and offended", condemnation of the arbitrariness of the authorities. L.N. Tolstoy and F.M. Dostoevsky, as if complementing each other, in his works depicted the life of a person in all the diversity of its relations with the world. Sharp satire M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, lyrical poems by F.I. Tyutcheva, the mysterious Russian soul in the stories and novels of N.S. Leskov, "Oblomovism" I.A. Goncharov, the decline of the “noble nests” of I.S. Turgenev, the merchant environment in the dramas of A.N. Ostrovsky, the greatness and tragedy of man in the works of L.N. Tolstoy and F.M. Dostoevsky - all this makes Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century. great.

Painting . In 1863, 14 graduates of the Academy of Arts refused to complete their final work on a given classical subject. The initiator of the "academic rebellion" was I.N. Kramskoy, who later headed the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions. The Wanderers opposed pompous academicism and sought to reflect in their work real life. The main place in their works was occupied by genre painting. The Wanderers were interested in the ideological side of creativity. In the early years of the existence of the "Partnership", most artists put the ideological side of painting above the aesthetic. And as a result, their paintings reflected a heightened vision of the socio-political processes taking place in the country, and sometimes they were illustrations of specific events. The best Russian artists in different time were participants in traveling exhibitions: I.N. Kramskoy, V.I. Surikov, I.E. Repin, N.N. Ge, I.I. Shishkin, I.I. Levitan, V.A. Serov and others.

However, with the advent of photography, a change in aesthetic tastes, the painting of the Wanderers lost its social sharpness. In addition, time divorced many like-minded people. The Academy of Arts was not alien to new trends. A number of prominent Wanderers (Repin, Kuindzhi) became its members. The rebellion of the Wanderers at the end of the century was repeated by a new generation of artists. A group of young painters united around the magazine "World of Art" (1898) and attacked the work of the Wanderers with sharp criticism. "Miriskusnikov" was united by the recognition of the inherent value of art as such and the denial of its ideological role. The heyday of their work dates back to the beginning of the next century.

Architecture . The socio-economic situation in the post-reform period has changed the requirements for residential and public buildings. In architecture, the focus was on the functions of the building. However, its appearance, regardless of the purpose of the building, was sometimes very bizarre (up to the Moorish style). The dominance of eclecticism lasted almost the entire second half of the nineteenth century. At this time, new types of buildings appear: department stores, arcades, apartment buildings, railway stations, large hotels, museums. Construction going on at a fast pace industrial enterprises warehouse premises. It is these types of buildings that are replacing the monumental classical buildings of the past.

IN last years nineteenth century in architecture, the era of the Art Nouveau style begins, the heyday of which falls already at the beginning of the twentieth century.

Music . A huge role in the development of musical culture was played by the creative association of composers M.A. Balakirieva, M.P. Mussorgsky, Ts.A. Cui, A.P. Borodin and N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, known as the "Mighty Handful". In the early 60s. in Moscow and St. Petersburg through the efforts of the brothers A.G. and N.G. Rubinsteinov, conservatories were opened, which marked the beginning of professional music education in Russia. The musical works of P.I. Tchaikovsky. Russian music of the second half of the 19th century, using folklore and national motifs, continued the traditions of Russian classical music.

This text is an introductory piece. author Nikolaev Igor Mikhailovich

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The abolition of serfdom served as a powerful impetus to the cultural development of the Russian people. Former serfs in the second half of the 19th century were actively involved in market relations and industrial production, which sharply raised the question of their education.

During this period, the ranks of the intelligentsia were significantly replenished. Printed publications became available to society: books, newspapers, magazines. On the wave of social spiritual growth, theater, music, painting and literature were actively developing.

Education in the second half of the 19th century

With the end of the serf era, it became clear that the level of education of the peasants was catastrophically low. In the 70s, the illiteracy rate of the rural population reached 85%. The city dwellers were not far behind either, among whom only one in four had a primary literacy.

It was possible to improve the situation thanks to the development of zemstvo and parochial schools, in which not only children, but also adults received primary education. Many parochial schools were created by enthusiastic educators who not only financially supported such institutions, but also personally taught in them.

Secondary education was provided by gymnasiums, in which students studied the humanities and natural sciences. By the end of the century, several gymnasiums were opened, which focused on teaching physics and mathematics.

The number of higher educational institutions increased significantly, and the number of university students, compared with the first half of the 19th century, increased 4 times. During this period, the opportunity to receive higher education appeared in women. Previously, this was prohibited at the state level.

In St. Petersburg in 1878, the first Higher Courses for Women were opened. Later, similar institutions appeared in all the big cities of the empire. The high rates of the educational process in post-reform Russia gave their positive results: as of 1889, the number of the illiterate population decreased by 4 times.

Science in the second half of the 19th century

During this period, Russian science also experienced a significant upsurge. The young educated generation was increasingly attracted scientific activity. University graduates who showed good results in the educational process got the opportunity of internships in European countries.

During this period, Russian scientists made world-class technical discoveries: A.S. Popov invented the world's first radiotelegraph, P.N. Yablochkov and A.N. Lodygin created the first incandescent lamp.

The end of the 19th century entered Russian history like the golden age of chemistry. Russian scientists developed a theory of the chemical structure of substances, which is still used today. In the early 70s, D.I. Mendeleev. His periodic table of chemical elements became the basis for the further study of science. Books written by the scientist during his lifetime were translated into almost all languages of the world.

At that time, outstanding biologists I.I. Mechnikov, I. M. Sechenov, I. P. Pavlov. At the end of the 19th century, the formation of historical science in the Russian Empire took place. Scientists for the first time begin to criticize the works of their predecessors and create a new look at the events taking place in the world since ancient times.

Famous Russian historians were S. M. Solovyov, V. O. Klyuchevsky, M. M. Kovalevsky - they all gained fame and recognition not only in Russia, but also far beyond its borders. The main achievement of scientific and educational activities in the Russian Empire was the recognition of our state in 1890 as the cradle of world science.

Topic 12. Russia in the second half of the XIX century. Great reforms of Alexander II

12.1. The abolition of serfdom: causes, preparation, main provisions

The need for reforms in the country, the main of which was the abolition of serfdom, became especially obvious for all segments of Russian society during the Crimean War, which ended in defeat for Russia.

The country faced a dilemma: either the empire was losing its status as a European power, or it was hastily carrying out reforms and catching up with rivals.

Emperor Alexander II (1855-1881) in this situation came to an understanding of the need for urgent changes in the country.

Innovations appeared in domestic policy, expressed primarily in the lifting of many prohibitions of the previous period of reign: the free issuance (of course, to the wealthy strata) of foreign passports was allowed; weakened censorship; military settlements were liquidated; an amnesty for political affairs was held, as a result of which the Decembrists, Petrashevists, participants in the Polish uprising of 1830-1831 were released.

Notes and works concerning the most burning issues began to appear and vigorously discussed in society. Big influence K.D. Kavelin, in which he noted the perniciousness of serfdom in economic, political and moral terms.

In 1856, the famous Slavophil Yu.F. Samarin (1819–1876), who preached the abolition of serfdom from the standpoint of the need to preserve and strengthen the peasant community. Many provisions of this project were subsequently reflected in the documents of the peasant reform.

Supporters of the liberation of the peasants were also some members of the imperial family.

There are different points of view regarding the reasons that forced the supreme power to abolish serfdom. Most domestic historians believe that economic exhaustion played a major role in this. serfdom: the lack of interest of the peasants as a result of their labor, the tightening of exploitation on landlord estates, contributing to a noticeable degradation of agriculture. The economic crisis, the plight of the peasants led, according to researchers, to a significant increase in social tension at the turn of 1850-1860. She expressed herself in the rise peasant movement and protests from radical public figures– N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov and others.

By the middle of the XIX century. the crisis of the nobility as an estate and the landlord economy as a form of agricultural production became obvious. By this time, 3.5% of the nobles were dispossessed, 39.5% had less than 20 serfs, and 66% of the serfs were mortgaged into banks by landowners.

There is another point of view, according to which in the middle of the XIX century. serfdom was still far from having exhausted its possibilities, while anti-government demonstrations were extremely inactive. According to supporters of this point of view, the peasant reform was due to foreign policy factors, that is, the need to maintain the status of Russia as a powerful state.

Alexander II, in preparing the peasant reform, relied on the bureaucracy, the state apparatus subject to and obedient to him. In the 1830s–1850s a certain layer of progressive, state-minded people began to take shape among the bureaucracy. They were united by the unity of views on the program of the forthcoming reforms. Scholars have called this group the liberal bureaucracy. The patron of the liberal bureaucracy was the tsar's brother Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich, and their most prominent representatives are the official of the Ministry of Internal Affairs N.A. Milyutin, his brother General D.A. Milyutin, General Ya.I. Rostovtsev, V.I. Dahl, Ya.I. Solovyov and others.

According to the liberal bureaucrats, in order to strengthen the position of state power, it was necessary to free the peasants, create a strong peasant economy, and provide a certain freedom social forces. They also advocated the democratization of the state while retaining the monarchy.

In January 1857, a Secret Committee on Peasant Affairs was created, which included the highest dignitaries of the state and which, for a year, considered draft peasant reforms developed during the previous reigns.

In February 1858, the Secret Committee was transformed into the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs. A public discussion of the abolition of serfdom was introduced. Similar committees were created in 46 provinces.

As a result of heated discussions, the struggle of various noble groups, and the strengthening of the social movement in the autumn of 1858, a turning point occurred in the course of pre-reform work. The government and the Main Committee on Peasant Affairs determined the comprehensive principles on which the reform was to be built: the release of peasants with a field plot for ransom, the destruction of the patrimonial power of the landlords, and the introduction of civil rights to the peasantry.

In order to generalize the projects of the provincial committees of the nobility, as well as to develop the main legal documents regulating the implementation of the peasant reform, in February 1859 Alexander II created editorial commissions under the Main Committee on Peasant Affairs. They were headed by Ya.I. Rostovtsev, and the main organizer practical work was on. Milyutin.

The editorial commissions worked very intensively for about two years and held 409 meetings. They prepared legislative acts of reform.

After the closing of the editorial committees, the codified projects of the peasant reform were submitted for discussion, first to the Main Committee on Peasant Affairs, then to State Council(October 1860 - February 1861). Opponents of the reform tried to slow it down, but Alexander II showed firmness.

In total, not counting the tsar's manifesto of February 19, 1861, Alexander II approved 17 legal documents that had the force of law and were aimed at regulating social relations after the abolition of serfdom in Russia.

After the promulgation on March 5, 1861, of the manifesto on the emancipation of the peasants, the main legal provisions, according to which the peasants received personal freedom, that is, they ceased to be the property of the landowner and received certain civil rights: to independently conclude transactions; engage in crafts at your own discretion; move to other classes; enter the service; acquire movable and immovable property, etc.

For the new land arrangement of the peasants, it was decided to create rural communities based on the community. The community resolved the issues of distribution and exploitation of the land fund. All issues were discussed and resolved at a village meeting, which united the peasants of each landowner's estate. Organizational and economic issues were decided and coordinated by the village headman, who was elected for three years. Several rural societies formed a volost, which was headed by a volost foreman who performed police and administrative functions.

The peasants were freed from the land. The size of the land allotment was determined on the basis of a voluntary agreement between the landowner and the peasant, with the participation of an amicable mediator and a village headman, and depended on the region of Russia (chernozem, non-chernozem, steppe provinces). If the peasants used a larger amount of land than provided for in the Regulations of February 19, 1861, then part of the surplus, which was called cuts, was taken away in favor of the landowners.

The land was given to the peasants for ransom. They had to pay the landlord a lump sum of 20% of the cost of the allotment, and the rest was paid by the state, but with the return of this amount to him within 49 years with interest. The size of the redemption payments, depending on the region of Russia, was different, but was calculated based on the amount of the cash quitrent paid by the peasant to the landowner.

Before the conclusion of the redemption transaction, all peasants, as well as those who could not pay 20% of the cost of the allotment, were considered temporarily liable and had to fully fulfill their former duties - corvée and dues, although they were personally free.

To implement the peasant reform, a special institute of peace mediators was established, who were appointed by the Senate from local nobles to draw up charters that determined the specific conditions for the release of each peasant family. They also dealt with land disputes between landowners and peasants.

The reform was based on the principle of gradualness, i.e. within two years it was necessary to draw up charter letters, for nine years the peasant could not give up his land allotment and leave the community.

The peasant reform embraced the specific and state villages.

Specific peasants (i.e., those who belonged to the imperial family) received their freedom as early as 1858. Their land arrangement, duties and redemption were determined in 1863 on the basis of general provisions reforms to abolish serfdom by a special royal decree. For state peasants, a new land arrangement was fixed by law in 1866. They continued to use their former allotments, and were transferred to redemption payments only in 1886.

12.2. Reforms of the 1860s–1870s

The peasant reform led to reforms in other spheres of society.

An important event was the implementation of the Zemstvo reform on January 1, 1864. Local self-government bodies were created in counties and provinces, which dealt with issues of improvement, education, health care, social care, insurance, care for local trade and industry. Elections to zemstvos were held once every three years by curia, that is, in accordance with a certain property qualification. Citizens were divided into three categories: rural communities (peasants); townspeople; all other landowners (mainly the nobility).

Those chosen by curia were called zemstvo vowels, they met once a year at provincial and district meetings, where they elected their executive bodies (zemstvo councils) and solved the main problems in accordance with their own terms of reference. The financial support of zemstvo institutions was local fees, appointed by the zemstvos themselves.

On June 16, 1870, a new City Regulation was approved, according to which all-estate bodies of urban public self-government were created everywhere with broad powers to improve cities and develop their economy, as well as provide other city needs. The institutions of city self-government were: city electoral meetings, city duma, city government.

The most radical and consistent was the judicial reform, carried out by introducing new judicial charters into the legal sphere, approved on November 20, 1864. According to these regulations the most advanced for those times principles of organizing legal proceedings and conducting trials were consolidated. These included: the non-estate nature of the court and the equality of all citizens before the law; the separation of the judiciary from the administrative and the proclamation of the irremovability of judges; publicity and competitiveness of legal proceedings; the introduction of new legal institutions: jurors to consider complex criminal cases and issue a verdict (guilty or not guilty); sworn (private) attorneys - lawyers who provided legal advice and protection to the parties; reduction in the number of courts and simplification of the judicial system.

In accordance with the reform, the judicial system of Russia began to have five instances: 1) the world court, 2) the congress of justices of the peace, 3) the district court, 4) the judicial chamber, 5) the Senate.

The judicial reform of 1864 was a serious step for Russia on the way to the formation of civil society and the rule of law. Many components of this reform have found their application in the modern judicial system of the Russian Federation.

The preparation and implementation of the military reform (1861–1874) in Russia was carried out by D.A. Milyutin, who became Minister of War in 1861. He began by facilitating the service of soldiers, achieving in 1863 a reduction in its term to 15 years, the abolition of corporal punishment, the introduction of literacy training for soldiers, and a ban on returning to soldiers for crimes.

The whole complex of military reforms included the following: reduction in the size of the army; the establishment of a system of military districts, that is, the decentralization of military command in the country; the abolition of the recruiting system for recruiting the army and the introduction of universal military service (since January 1, 1874).

The new charter on military service introduced the same conditions for service in the army for all estates.

The network of military educational institutions for the training of officers was expanding: in 1862-1864. military gymnasiums and cadet schools were established. The army was re-equipped.

Military transformations made Russian army more capable, liberated and were aimed at eliminating class restrictions. No wonder this reform is called one of the most humane reforms of the 1960s and 1970s. 19th century

An important place among the "great" reforms was occupied by the reform of the system public education. In the 1860s–1870s there was a turn towards the development and formation of women's education. In 1860, the Regulations on women's schools were adopted, which could be created in all provincial cities and were analogues of men's gymnasiums. It was much more difficult for women to receive higher education, since they were not allowed to enter universities, therefore, under the control of the Ministry of Public Education, it was allowed to create higher university-type courses for women.

Serious changes have taken place in the system of primary and secondary male education. New documents were adopted: the Regulations on Primary Public Schools (July 14, 1864) and the Charter of Gymnasiums and Progymnasiums (November 19, 1864). Thus, the state-church monopoly on education and educational institutions lost its power. Now, with the appropriate permission of the bodies of the Ministry of Public Education, zemstvos, public organizations, as well as private individuals could create educational institutions. These documents also laid the foundations for the division high school into classical (humanitarian) and real (technical).

Changes have also taken place in the system of higher education. So, on June 18, 1863, a new university charter was approved, giving higher educational institutions significant autonomy. Significant attention in this document was given to the elective principle: all vacancies were filled through elections, including professorships. Democratic traditions emanating from the university environment have become an important factor in the social life of Russia.

12.3. social movements

The reforms carried out in Russia in the 1860s–1870s, despite their significance, were limited and contradictory, which contributed to the intensification of the ideological and political struggle and led to the final formation of three directions in the social movement: revolutionary, liberal, and conservative.

Supporters of conservatism stood guard over the autocracy, advocated the curtailment of reforms and the implementation of counter-reforms, the preservation of landownership. The ideologists of the conservatives were K.P. Pobedonostsev, D.A. Tolstoy, M.N. Katkov, V.P. Meshchersky and others.

The bureaucratic and bureaucratic state apparatus, the church, and a significant part of the periodical press were considered the stronghold and at the same time the sphere of the spread of conservatism. Conservative traditionalism was recognized as the official ideology of Russia until 1917.

Liberalism(translated from Latin - free) as a socio-political movement arose primarily among the intelligentsia, which advocated the introduction of constitutional principles into the political and legal system, democratic freedoms and the continuation of reforms. The liberals were opponents of the revolution and defended the evolutionary path of the country's development, so they were ready for cooperation and compromises with the autocracy. The ideological substantiation of Russian liberalism is contained in the works of K.D. Kavelina, B.N. Chicherina and others. The influential journal Vestnik Evropy, which was directed by M.M. Stasyulevich.

Representatives of Slavophile liberalism were grouped around the journal Russkaya Beseda, headed by A.I. Koshelev.

At the end of the 1870s. zemstvo liberals (I.I. Petrunkevich and S.A. Muromtsev) put forward the idea of establishing a zemstvo representation in Russia under the supreme power. To a large extent, this was due to the fact that at the end of the reign of Alexander II, key positions in the executive branch were occupied by M.T. Loris-Melikov. The basis of the program of his activities was the idea of cooperation with the liberal circles of society, their transfer from the opposition to the camp of the allies in the fight against the revolutionary movement.

January 28, 1881 M.T. Loris-Melikov submitted a report to the emperor, the essence of which was the establishment of preparatory commissions with the involvement of representatives of the zemstvo bodies in them. The commissions had to discuss bills and express their opinion until they were submitted to the State Council.

Alexander II basically approved this project, but on March 1, 1881, as a result of a terrorist act, he was killed by Narodnaya Volya. Alexander III, who ascended the throne, and his reactionary entourage rejected the proposal of M.T. Loris-Melikov, who soon retired.

The most active in the social movement were representatives of the revolutionary direction, who sought to radically reorganize society, mainly by force. The ideological basis for this was the theory of a special, non-capitalist development of Russia through communal socialism, the ideologists of which were A.I. Herzen and N.G. Chernyshevsky. These theoretical views influenced the formation of a new radical trend - populism.

Ways to achieve a new just society were formulated by other ideologues of revolutionary populism, who laid the foundations of three ideological currents:

- rebellious (anarchist). Its ideologist M.A. Bakunin (1814-1876) believed that the Russian peasant was by nature a rebel and therefore he should be raised to a revolution that should destroy the state and create in its place a federation of self-governing communities and associations;

- propaganda. Its founder P.L. Lavrov (1823–1900) argued that the people were not ready for a revolution, so he paid the main attention to the long-term propaganda of socialist ideas and believed that the advanced part of the Russian intelligentsia should “wake up” the peasantry;

- conspiratorial. The theorist of this trend P.N. Tkachev (1844-1885), in his views on a possible revolution in Russia, emphasized a conspiracy to overthrow the coup by professional revolutionaries. The seizure of power, in his opinion, should quickly draw the people into socialist reconstruction.

For many years of the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. the utopian theory of populist socialism became the theoretical and programmatic basis for many radical revolutionary movements and political parties.

Revolutionary radicalism largely stemmed from the peculiarities of the socio-economic and political development of the country (limited reforms, autocracy, police arbitrariness, lack of political freedoms, communal-collectivist way of life for the majority of the population). The absence of civil society contributed to the fact that only secret organizations could arise in Russia.

From 1861 to the mid-1870s. there was a formation of populist ideology and the creation of secret revolutionary circles.

This process was due to dissatisfaction with the peasant reform of 1861. The first secret organization was "Land and Freedom" (1861-1864), the founders and leaders of which were N.A. and A.A. Serno-Solov'evichi, N.A. Sleptsov, N.N. Obruchev, N.I. Utin and others. They kept in touch with the editorial office of the newspaper A.I. Herzen and N.I. Ogarev "Bell", with a committee of Russian officers in Poland, created a number of local organizations in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, issued revolutionary proclamations. In 1864, Land and Freedom decided to dissolve itself.

Since the mid 1860s. other secret circles began to appear. In 1863–1866 the circle of N.A. Ishutin and I.A. Khudyakov, whose member D. Karakozov in April 1866 made an attempt on Alexander II. The secret organization "People's Reprisal" (1869–1871) was created by S.G. Nechaev, who used provocative methods in his revolutionary activities, which led to the murder of student I. Ivanov, who was suspected of betrayal.

A large populist organization was considered a circle called “Chaikovites” (leaders M.A. Natanson, N.V. Tchaikovsky, S.L. Perovskaya and others), whose representatives initiated the “going to the people”.

The active struggle of the populists against the autocratic system began in the mid-1870s. In 1874–1876 on the basis of the ideas of populist theorists, many young raznochintsy organized a "going to the people" with the aim of enlightening and propagating revolutionary ideas. But it ended in failure: the peasants did not understand their noble impulses.

In 1876, a new secret organization "Land and Freedom" was formed. Its program provided for the overthrow of the autocracy in a revolutionary way, the transfer of all land to the peasants and the introduction of local self-government. The organization was headed by G.V. Plekhanov, A.D. Mikhailov, S.M. Kravchinsky, N.A. Morozov, V.N. Figner and others. With the participation of "Earth and Freedom" in 1876 in St. Petersburg on the square in front of the Kazan Cathedral, the first political demonstration in Russia was held, where G.V. Plekhanov. In 1877, many landowners undertook a second "going to the people." They settled in the villages for a longer period as artisans, doctors, teachers. But their propaganda also did not give the desired results. Part of the Narodniks began to lean towards the terrorist struggle. IN AND. Zasulich in May 1878 made an attempt on the life of the St. Petersburg mayor F.F. Trepova, and S.M. Kravchinsky in August of the same year killed the chief of gendarmes N.V. Mezentsev.

Within the "Land and Freedom" two directions were determined. Representatives of the first direction (“politics”), disillusioned with propaganda, advocated the use of terror as the main method of struggle, and representatives of the second (“village workers”) supported the continuation of work in the village. In August 1879, at the congress of "Land and Liberty", there was a split into two independent organizations: "Black Redistribution" (1879–1881), whose leaders were G.V. Plekhanov, V.I. Zasulich, L.G. Deutsch, P.B. Axelrod, who continued to stand on the platform of peaceful propaganda of populist ideas in the countryside; "Narodnaya Volya" (1879–1881), headed by A.I. Zhelyabov, S.L. Perovskaya, N.A. Morozov, V.N. Figner and others. Its members, disappointed in the revolutionary possibilities of the peasantry, relied on the fight against the tsarist government with the help of terror, trying to create a political crisis in the country. Members of the "Narodnaya Volya" organized several assassination attempts on Emperor Alexander II. On March 1, 1881, the tsar died from a bomb explosion on the embankment of the Catherine Canal in St. Petersburg. The long struggle waged by the "Narodnaya Volya" ended in regicide, but there was no revolutionary explosion. The people remained inert, police repression intensified, and the overwhelming majority of the revolutionary Narodniks were crushed.

12.4. Socio-economic development of the country in the post-reform period

The reforms created the basis for the development of capitalist relations in Russia. In the second half of the XIX century. Russian industry experienced rapid growth. In the 1880s completed the industrial revolution in Russia. In the post-reform years, the volume of industrial production increased almost sevenfold. The number of factories and plants increased from 3 to 9 thousand. Construction proceeded rapidly railways. If by 1861 their length was 2 thousand km, then by the beginning of the 1880s. - over 22 thousand km.

Foreign capital was intensively attracted to the economy, mainly French, English, Belgian, and German. Investments went mainly to the mining, engineering and chemical industries. Domestic capital dominated in the light and food industries.

Most of the country's industrial potential was concentrated in five regions: in the central and northwestern part of Russia, in the Urals, in the Donbass and Baku. In the rest of the territories, agricultural and handicraft production prevailed.

The leading sector of the economy continued to be agriculture, which was dominated by an extensive development path. The abolition of serfdom gave impetus to the formation of capitalist relations in the countryside and led to an increase in marketability in the agricultural sector. Significantly increased - by 44% - for 10 years (by 1870) the export of bread abroad. But feudal vestiges have also survived, hindering the development of the Russian countryside.

In the agrarian evolution of post-reform Russia, two development paths coexisted:

- the first is the preservation of large landlord farms and their slow involvement in market relations (the Prussian path of development). This path is most widespread in the provinces of Central Russia;

- the second - the involvement of peasants and part of the landowners in farming and entrepreneurship (the American way of development). This path prevailed in Siberia, the steppe regions of the Trans-Volga region, the Caucasus and the North of Russia.

Serious changes in the post-reform period took place in the social structure of Russian society. main feature in this area was the contradiction between the class and social structure, their mismatch. The estate was a relic of the feudal system of relations and gradually became obsolete. For example, not all nobles were landowners, some of them received their livelihood in the civil service.

New classes of the developing capitalist society were emerging: the bourgeoisie and the workers (the proletariat). They were formed not on a legal, but on an economic basis. Their appearance was not foreseen by the estate hierarchy, therefore the composition of these classes consisted of representatives of different estates. The bourgeois class was replenished with nobles, peasants, and foreigners. The class of workers was formed primarily from poor peasants who went to work in the city. The burghers (townspeople) also often became hired workers.

At the same time, it should be noted that, unlike the West European, the Russian bourgeoisie was still economically and politically weak and dependent on the ruling power.

12.5. Foreign policy

Under Alexander II, foreign policy had several goals that were successfully implemented by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, headed since 1856 by the brilliant diplomat A.M. Gorchakov (1798–1883). Firstly, the restoration of Russia's international prestige and the status of a great power after the defeat in the Crimean War, as well as the abolition of the articles of the Paris Peace Treaty, humiliating for the country, which prohibits having a fleet and military fortifications on the Black Sea. Secondly, the preservation of Russian influence in the Balkans and support for the national liberation movement of the Slavic peoples against Turkey. Thirdly, the expansion of Russian territory and the annexation Central Asia. Fourth, the normalization of relations with China and Japan, as well as the sale of the Alaska Peninsula by Russia to the United States.

European policy of Russia. In 1870–1871, taking advantage of the situation in Europe, primarily the intensification of contradictions between the main European powers, the conduct of the Franco-Prussian war, Russia declared itself not bound by an obligation forbidding it to keep a navy on the Black Sea. This was confirmed in March 1871 by the London International Conference, which became a major diplomatic success for Russia.

During this period, Russia moved closer to Germany and Austria-Hungary. As a result, in 1873 the Union of the Three Emperors arose, which lasted until 1878. For Russia, this alliance meant the restoration of its influence on European politics.

Eastern Crisis. Russo-Turkish War 1877–1878 In the 1870s the eastern question escalated again. By that time, Russia had strengthened its international positions and felt very confident, so it actively supported the national liberation struggle of the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula against the Ottoman Empire.

In Russia itself, a powerful political trend arose - pan-Slavism, which called for the unification of the Slavic peoples under the leadership of the Russian state. Slavic committees were formed throughout the country, advocating all-round (including military) assistance to the Slavic brothers. Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary repeatedly appealed to Turkey with demands for reforms that would establish equal rights for the Slavic population, but the Turkish government rejected them.

Under these conditions, in order not to lose his influence in the Balkans, as well as under the enormous influence of the Russian public inside the country, Alexander II decided on April 12, 1877 to declare war on Turkey. The fighting began to unfold in the Balkans and Transcaucasia. The Russian army entered the territory of Bulgaria, where the main battles with the Turkish army unfolded. The Russian army captured the strategically important Shipka Pass and fought heroically near Plevna. After the implementation of competent siege measures developed by the famous fortifier E.I. Totleben, the fortress was cut off from the outside world and surrendered in November 1877.

At the same time, successfully developed for Russia fighting and on the Transcaucasian front. Such important fortresses as Ardagan and Kars were occupied here.

The war came to a turning point in favor of Russia. Under the threat of complete defeat, Turkey offered to hold peace negotiations, as a result of which, on February 19, 1878, the Treaty of San Stefano was concluded. Its main result was the proclamation of the independence of Serbia, Montenegro, Romania, and the autonomy of Bulgaria. Russia received a number of fortresses in the Caucasus (Ardagan, Kars, Batum, Bayazet) and returned the territories of Southern Bessarabia lost during the defeat in the Crimean War.

The San Stefano peace treaty did not suit the European countries, and the tsarist government, under their pressure, was forced to submit some of its articles for discussion by the international congress. On July 1, 1878, the Treaty of Berlin was signed, which differed from the Treaty of San Stefano. Bulgaria was divided into two parts: northern and southern. The first was granted autonomy, and the second again became a Turkish province. Austria-Hungary received the right to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The victory in the Russian-Turkish war was the country's biggest military success in the second half of the 19th century. and strengthened Russia's influence in the Balkans and in the world.

Accession to Russia of Central Asia. In the second half of the XIX century. expansion and active penetration of Russia into Central Asia began. In the 1850s–1860s there was the assertion of Russia in Kazakhstan. In 1865, Russian troops captured Tashkent. Here, in 1867, the Turkestan governor-general was formed, which became the center of the Russian presence in Central Asia. Bukhara and Khiva fell into vassal dependence on Russia. The Kokand Khanate, which was defeated by the troops of General M.D. Skobelev, capitulated and in 1876 was included in the Turkestan region.

Far East policy of Russia. Sale of Alaska. In the 1850s Russia continued to develop the vast territories of Siberia and Far East. To protect the land along the Amur River, the Trans-Baikal Cossack Army was formed in 1851, and in 1858 the Amur Cossack Host. At the initiative of the Governor-General of Eastern Siberia N.N. Muravyov, treaties were signed with China (Aigun in 1858 and Beijing in 1860) on the delimitation of adjacent territories along the Amur River.

In 1855, an agreement was concluded with Japan, according to which the Kuril Islands were recognized as the territory of Russia, and joint ownership was established on Sakhalin Island. In 1875, according to the new treaty, the Kuriles were completely ceded to Japan, and Sakhalin Island to Russia.

The sale of the Alaska Peninsula took place under Alexander II in 1867 during the period of his reforms. There was no visible threat to Alaska. Relations between Russia and the United States during this period were friendly. But the potential threat to Alaska remained. Firstly, it consisted in the fact that the tribes of the Indians were not conquered. English and American merchants supplied them with weapons and incited them to revolt. In 1847, the British established a trading post in the Upper Yukon. Coastal waters of Alaska swarmed with whaling ships different countries. And the colony could not cope with all this. Secondly, the huge territory was practically not mastered. In order to avoid clashes with the Indians, the colonists were forbidden to penetrate deep into the continent. The total Russian population here ranged from 600 to 800 people. Economic situation territory was fragile and continued to deteriorate. The maintenance of Alaska needed government subsidies. The consequences of the Crimean War, which exhausted Russia morally and materially, forced the tsar and his diplomats to change the course of foreign policy. Thirdly, in the event of war, Russia was unable to defend Alaska.

Thus, the fate of the territory was decided. December 28, 1866 Alexander II signed a document on the sale of the Alaska Peninsula. All this was done in secret.

The news of the decision to buy Alaska was met in American government circles very favorably, the formalities were quickly settled. And on March 30, 1867, the agreement was signed. The purchase price was declared equal to 7 million 200 thousand dollars. This payment was negligible for a huge acquisition. Alaska was sold for next to nothing. Only one gold in it was mined for an amount two and a half thousand times greater than that paid by the buyer.

But the most interesting thing in this whole story is that Russia was never able to bring money for Alaska to the country. A significant part of the 7.2 million dollars was paid in gold, which was loaded onto the Orkney ship, which headed for St. Petersburg. In the Baltic Sea, a group of conspirators tried to seize gold, but failed. For some reason, the ship sank along with the precious cargo.

Reign of Queen Isabella

The young Isabella, proclaimed the monarch of Spain in 1833, received full rights at the age of 13. In 1843 she was declared an adult. The queen did not aspire to state power, she was fond of music and riding open carriages. Instead, the country was ruled by generals:

first General Ramon Narvaez,
later General Leopoldo O*Donnell.

Therefore, the period from 1843 to 1868 entered the history of Spain as a general regime.

Under Isabella, Spain focused on rapprochement with England and France. Together with Portugal, the monarchies formed the Quadruple Alliance as an opposition to the restoration of the Holy Alliance. In domestic politics, the Queen favored the Moderados, with little consideration for the Progressives. The 1845 constitution gave the monarch additional leverage over the Cortes. But the instability of the government was expressed in its frequent change, in total, during the reign of Isabella, the government changed 33 times.

"Isabella era" brought a boost to the Spanish economy. The mining and metallurgical industries developed, the textile industry progressed, and a boom in railway construction began. By the end of the queen's reign, 3,600 kilometers of railway track had been built. But the country was still agrarian. Has undergone changes social structure population. The financial, industrial and military aristocracy comes to the fore, pushing the clergy and nobility aside. The queen everywhere demonstrated support for capitalist transformations and the modernization of the country.

Remark 1

The low level of well-being of the common people led to the fall of Isabella's authority and her flight to France. There she was received by Napoleon III. Isabella II lived in this political asylum until her death in 1904.

Spain under the Savoy kings

From 1868 to 1874 are called in Spain the time of the "democratic six years". After the flight of the queen, the Constituent Cortes were convened, which drafted the new Constitution of 1869. She granted voting rights to citizens from the age of 25, legalized the principle of separation of powers. The Cortes had to choose a new monarch. Three main candidates were rejected by the head of the cabinet, General Prim:

son of Isabella II Alphonse;
grandson of Don Carlos the Elder Carlos the Younger;
Duke of Montpensier of Orleans.

The three-party bloc of liberals elected Amadeus of Savoy king. The reign of the new king began on November 16, 1870 and lasted a little over two years. In February 1873, he abdicated and Spain became a republic. The First Republic brought chaos to Spain: civil war, the activation of the Carlists, the economic crisis, the aggravation of Spanish-Cuban relations, the plague and famine. It was decided to restore the Bourbons to the Spanish throne, Alphonse XII, the son of Isabella II, became king.

Restored power of the Bourbons

Alphonse XII (reigned from 184 to 1885) began his reign by defeating the Carlist rebellion. Following the termination civil war ended the colonial war with Cuba. Alphonse was nicknamed the Peacemaker. Alphonse XII, together with A. Canovas del Castillo, tried to build a constitutional monarchy in Spain on the model of the English. Kanolvas founded and led the conservative party, publicist Sagasta - the opposition liberal party. During these years, caciqueism became widespread.

Definition 1

Kasikizm is an electoral system that covers the arbitrariness of local leaders. The caciques ensured the passage of the necessary deputies to the Cortes through the falsification of elections, bribery and intimidation of voters.

The death of the king led to a new dynastic crisis. Six months after the death of Alfonso XII, his son and heir Alfonso XIII was born. Until he came of age in 1902, his mother Maria Christina ruled the country. By the end of the 19th century, Spain approached with negative results: all overseas colonies were torn away as a result of the defeat in the Spanish-American war of 1898.

The position of Russia in the second half of the 19th century remained extremely difficult: it stood on the edge of the abyss. The economy and finances were undermined by the Crimean War, and the national economy, bound by the chains of serfdom, could not develop.

Legacy of Nicholas I

The years of the reign of Nicholas I are considered the most unsuccessful since the Time of Troubles. An ardent opponent of any reforms and the introduction of a constitution in the country, Russian emperor relied on an extensive bureaucratic bureaucratic apparatus. the ideology of Nicholas I was based on the thesis “the people and the tsar are one”. The result of the reign of Nicholas I was the economic backwardness of Russia from the countries of Europe, the general illiteracy of the population and the arbitrariness of the small-town authorities in all spheres of public life.

It was necessary to urgently solve the following tasks:

In foreign policy, to restore the international prestige of Russia. Overcome the country's diplomatic isolation.
In domestic policy, to create all conditions for stabilizing domestic economic growth. Solve the sore peasant question. To overcome the lag behind Western countries in the industrial sector through the introduction of new technologies.
When solving internal problems, the government involuntarily had to face the interests of the nobility. Therefore, the mood of this class also had to be taken into account.

After the reign of Nicholas I, Russia needed a breath of fresh air, the country needed reforms. The new Emperor Alexander II understood this.

Russia in the reign of Alexander II

The beginning of the reign of Alexander II was marked by unrest in Poland. In 1863, the Poles revolted. Despite the protest of the Western powers, the Russian emperor brought an army into the territory of Poland and crushed the rebellion.

Social movements in the second half of the 19th century

The transformations of Alexander II contributed to the awakening of revolutionary and liberal forces in Russian society. The social movement of the second half of the 19th century is divided into three main currents :

conservative trend. The founder of this ideology was Katkov, later D. A. Tolstoy and K. P. Pobedonostsev joined him. The conservatives believed that Russia could develop only according to three criteria - autocracy, nationality and Orthodoxy.
Liberal movement. The founder of this trend was the prominent historian Chicherin B.N., later Kavelin K.D. and Muromtsev S.A. joined him. Liberals advocated a constitutional monarchy, the right of the individual and the independence of the church from the state.
revolutionary current. The ideologists of this current were A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky and V.G. Belinsky. Later N. A. Dobrolyubov joined them. Under Alexander II, thinkers published the magazines Kolokol and Sovremennik. The views of theoretical writers were based on the complete rejection of capitalism and autocracy as historical systems. They believed that prosperity for all would come only under socialism, and socialism would come immediately bypassing the stage of capitalism, and the peasantry would help it in this.

One of the founders of the revolutionary movement was M.A. Bakunin, who preached socialist anarchy. He believed that civilized states should be destroyed in order to build a new world Federation of communities in their place. The end of the 19th century brought the organization of secret revolutionary circles, the largest of which were “Land and Freedom”, “Great Russian”, “People's Reprisal”, “Ruble Society”, etc. The introduction of revolutionaries into the peasant environment was promoted in order to agitate them.

The peasants did not react in any way to the calls of the raznochintsy to overthrow the government. This led to the split of the revolutionaries into two camps - practitioners and theorists. Practitioners staged terrorist attacks and cracked down on prominent statesmen. The organization "Land and Freedom", later renamed the "People's Will" issued a death sentence to Alexander II. The sentence was carried out on March 1, 1881 after several unsuccessful assassination attempts. The terrorist Grinevitsky threw a bomb at the feet of the tsar.

Russia in the reign of Alexander III

Alexander III inherited a state deeply shaken by a series of murders of prominent politicians and police officials. The new tsar immediately set about crushing the revolutionary circles, and their main leaders, Tkachev, Perovskaya and Alexander Ulyanov, were executed.

Russia, instead of the constitution almost prepared by Alexander II, under the rule of his son, Alexander III, received a state with a police regime. The new emperor launched a systematic attack on his father's reforms.
Since 1884, student circles have been banned in the country, since the government saw the main danger of freethinking in the student environment.
The rights of local self-government were revised. The peasants again lost their vote in the election of local deputies. Rich merchants sat in the city duma, and the local nobility sat in the zemstvos.
Judicial reform has also undergone changes. The court has become more closed, the judges are more dependent on the authorities.
Alexander III began to spread Great Russian chauvinism. The favorite thesis of the emperor was proclaimed - “Russia for the Russians”. By 1891, pogroms of Jews began with the connivance of the authorities.

Alexander III dreamed of the revival of the absolute monarchy and the advent of the era of reaction. The reign of this king proceeded without wars and international complications. This made it possible to accelerate the development of foreign and domestic trade, cities grew, factories and factories were built. At the end of the 19th century, the length of roads in Russia increased. The construction of the Siberian Railway was begun in order to connect the central regions of the state with the Pacific coast.

Rice. 2. Construction of the Siberian Railway in the second half of the XIX century.

Cultural development of Russia in the second half of the 19th century

The transformations that began in the era of Alexander II could not but affect various spheres of Russian culture in the second 19th century.

Literature . New views on the life of the Russian population have become widespread in the literature. The society of writers, playwrights and poets was divided into two currents - the so-called Slavophiles and Westerners. A. S. Khomyakov and K. S. Aksakov considered themselves Slavophiles. The Slavophiles believed that Russia had its own special path and there was and will not be any Western influence on Russian culture. Westerners, to whom Chaadaev P. Ya., I. S. Turgenev, historian S. M. Solovyov considered himself, argued that Russia, on the contrary, should follow the Western path of development. Despite the differences in views, both Westerners and Slavophiles were equally worried about the future fate of the Russian people and state structure country. At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, Russian literature flourished. Their the best works write F. M. Dostoevsky, I. A. Goncharov, A. P. Chekhov and L. N. Tolstoy.
Architecture . In architecture in the second half of the 19th century, ecletism began to prevail - a mixture of different styles and trends. This affected the construction of new stations, shopping centers, apartment buildings etc. Also, the design of certain forms in the architecture of a more classical genre was developed. A.I. Shtakenshneider was a well-known architect in this direction, with the help of which the Mariinsky Palace in St. Petersburg was designed. St. Isaac's Cathedral was built in St. Petersburg from 1818 to 1858. This project was designed by Auguste Montferrand.

Rice. 3. St. Isaac's Cathedral. St. Petersburg.

Painting . The artists, inspired by new trends, did not want to work under the close tutelage of the Academy, which was stuck in classicism and was cut off from the real vision of art. Thus, the artist V. G. Perov focused his attention on various aspects of the life of society, sharply criticizing the remnants of the serf system. In the 60s, the work of the portrait painter Kramskoy flourished, V. A. Tropinin left us a lifetime portrait of A. S. Pushkin. The works of P. A. Fedotov did not fit into the narrow framework of academicism either. His works “Courtship of a Major” or “Breakfast of an Aristocrat” ridiculed the stupid complacency of officials and the remnants of the serf system.

In 1852, the Hermitage was opened in St. Petersburg, where the best works of painters from all over the world were collected.

What have we learned?

From the article briefly described, you can learn about the transformations of Alexander II, the emergence of the first revolutionary circles, the counter-reforms of Alexander III, as well as the flowering of Russian culture in the second half of the 19th century.

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