Russian culture of the XV - XVII centuries. Russian culture of the 15th-17th centuries Russian culture of the late 15th-16th centuries

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-1.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>Culture of Russia XV - XVII centuries">!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-2.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Purpose: To identify new phenomena in the Russian culture of the end"> Цель: Выявить новые явления в русской культуре конца XV - XVII веков!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-3.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> ARCHITECTURE temple civil fortress">!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-4.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> ARCHITECTURE Fortified architecture Moscow Kremlin back">!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-5.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> ARCHITECTURE Temple architecture Church of the Deposition of the Robe"> АРХИТЕКТУРА Храмовая архитектура Церковь Ризположения Колокольня Ивана Великого Успенский собор Благовещенский собор Архитекторы: Аристотель Фиораванти Алевиз Фрязин Бон Фрязин Петрок Малый Бажен Огурцов!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-6.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> ARCHITECTURE Temple architecture Hip style"> АРХИТЕКТУРА Храмовая архитектура Шатровый стиль архитектуры Церковь Вознесения Никольская церковь в селе Коломенском Лявля Архангельской бласти Шатровый стиль архитектуры – вид архитектурного сооружения, завершающегося высокой многогранной пирамидой!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-7.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> ARCHITECTURE Temple architecture Hip style"> АРХИТЕКТУРА Храмовая архитектура Шатровый стиль архитектуры Церковь Рождества Богородицы в Путинках Церковь Покрова Богородицы на Красной площади 1652 г. – запрет на строительство храмов шатрового стиля!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-8.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> ARCHITECTURE">!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-9.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> ARCHITECTURE Temple architecture Baroque architectural style"> АРХИТЕКТУРА Храмовая архитектура Архитектурный стиль барокко Барокко – (от ит. barocco – причудливый, вычурный) – это художественный стиль, отличающийся пышностью, причудливостью деталей. Храм Покрова Богородицы в Филях – усадебная церковь Нарышкина Л. К. назад!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-10.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> ARCHITECTURE Civil architecture The wooden palace of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in"> АРХИТЕКТУРА Гражданская архитектура Деревянный дворец царя Алексея Михайловича в селе Коломенском!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-11.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Civil architecture of Kirillov's Council Chamber"> Гражданская архитектура Палаты думного дьяка Кириллова Каменные палаты в Москве Дом купца Коробова в Калуге!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-12.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> ARCHITECTURE XV - XVII centuries. Directions temple fortress"> АРХИТЕКТУРА XV – XVII вв. Направления храмовое крепостное гражданское Особенности: -Многообразие видов храмов; - Сформировались архитектурные стили: шатровый НАЗАД московское (нарышкинское) барокко!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-13.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> PAINTING XV - XVII centuries Church painting"> ЖИВОПИСЬ XV – XVII вв. Церковная живопись Иконопись Время расцвета иконописи – XV век. Иконописцы второй половины XV – начала XIV веков: Андрей Рублев, Дионисий, Даниил Черный. Житийные иконы состоят из средника с фигурой и ряда клейм, где рассказано о их жизни!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-14.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> PAINTING Church painting"> ЖИВОПИСЬ Церковная живопись Фрески - это роспись по сырой штукатурке Фрески Дионисия в церкви Рождества Богородицы в Ферапонтовом монастыре!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-15.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> PAINTING "Blessed be the army of the heavenly king" ("Church militant")">!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-16.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> PAINTING Church painting"> ЖИВОПИСЬ Церковная живопись XVII век «Деяния пророка Елисея» . Гурий Никитин «Иоанн Предтеча в пустыне» . Прокопий Чирин «Насаждение древа государства Российского» . Симон Ушаков!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-17.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> PAINTING The Art of Book Art"> ЖИВОПИСЬ Искусство художественного оформления книги МИНИАТЮРА ЗАСТАВКА БУКВИЦА небольшая заглавная буква сделанный от руки орнаментальная или укрупненного многоцветный изобразительная размера, рисунок, который композиция, помещаемая в мог располагаться выделяющая и начале текста книги, в любом месте главы, части, абзаца украшающая начало рукописи какого-либо раздела книги!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-18.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> PAINTING XV - XVII centuries. Directions church portrait"> ЖИВОПИСЬ XV – XVII вв. Направления церковное портрет искусство художественног о оформления книги Особенности: расширение тематики живописи; житийные иконы; политические иконы; декоративность, парадность; обилие деталей, стремление к реализму в жанре портрета; складывание школ живописи назад!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-19.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> ENLIGHTENMENT. XV - XVII centuries. Printing in Russia"> ПРОСВЕЩЕНИЕ. XV – XVII вв. Книгопечатание на Руси Первые печатные книги на Руси 1564 г. - «Апостол» . Объем – 264 листа 2000 экземпляров 1565 г. - «Часовник» 1649 г. – первая книга с иллюстрациями Иван Федоров (Москвитин) Петр Тимофеев Мстиславец!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-20.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> EDUCATION Printing in Russia First"> ПРОСВЕЩЕНИЕ Книгопечатание на Руси Первые печатные буквари на Руси 1574 г. – Букварь Ивана Федорова 1634 г. -Букварь Василия Бурцова 1679 г. -Букварь Симеона Полоцкого 1694 г. , 1696 г. - Буквари Кариона Истомина Страница Большого букваря 1694 года!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-21.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> EDUCATION Schools 1685 "a school for learning"> ПРОСВЕЩЕНИЕ Учебные заведения 1685 г. «школа для учения детям» в г. Боровске 1665 г. –первая государственная греко -латинская школа в Москве. 1667 г. – в Китай-городе создан «гимнасион» 1680 г. – школа при Печатном дворе. Иоанникий и Руководитель – иеромонах Тимофей Софроний Лихуды 1687 год - Славяно – греко – латинское училище НАЗАД!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-22.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> LITERATURE XV - XVII centuries Religious"> ЛИТЕРАТУРА XV - XVII вв. Религиозная Народная Светская Особенности: жития-биографии, сатирические повести и сказания рождаются новые жанры – светская повесть, драма, стихи с бытовыми, сатирическими, любовными мотивами исторические сочинения монографического жанра, летописи утрачивают былое значение назад!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/176300850_412736724.pdf-img/176300850_412736724.pdf-23.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> THE BIRTH OF THE THEATER October 17, 1672 - the first play of the Russian"> РОЖДЕНИЕ ТЕАТРА 17 октября 1672 г. – первая пьеса русского театра «Артаксерксово действо» Играли пьесы: «Иудифь» , «Малая прохладная комедия об Иосифе» , «Жалобная комедия об Адаме и Еве» Уличное представление. реконструкция 1676 год – театр закрыли НАЗАД!}

The Mongol invasion dealt a serious blow to the culture of the Russian principalities. The Russian lands were devastated, many masters either died or were taken to the Horde. The first construction of a stone church after the Batu invasion was noted in the annals only in the 90s. 13th century in Novgorod. In the second half of the XIV century. along with the economic restoration of Russian lands, a cultural revival begins.
A feature of the development of culture of the XIV-XV centuries. was the gradual overcoming of the cultural disunity of the Russian lands and the revival of a single Russian culture. With the political and economic strengthening of Moscow, it becomes one of the main cultural centers of the Russian lands. The creation of a centralized state gave a powerful impetus to the development of culture. Russia's cultural contacts with other countries are expanding, especially with Italy, from where outstanding architects and other masters come to Moscow.
 In oral folk art the development of the heroic epic epic continues. During this period, a new genre appeared - historical songs. The song about Avdotya-Ryazanochka tells about a simple woman who frees the inhabitants of Ryazan from the crowd and revives the city. The events of the Tver uprising in 1327 received a response in the folk song about Shchelkan Dudentevich.
Central theme in Literature of the XIV-XV centuries. there was a struggle for the liberation of Russian lands. The events of the Battle of Kulikovo are reflected in two monuments of literature. "Zadonshchina" was created immediately after the battle. The author of "Zadonshchina" is Safony of Ryazan. A hundred years after the battle, in the 15th century, the "Legend of the Battle of Mamaev" was created by an unknown author.
In the XV century. a new literary genre appears - walking, i.e. travel descriptions. The most famous was "Journey Beyond Three Seas" - the travel notes of the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin, who set off in 1466 with a trade caravan to the North Caucasus and visited Iran and India.
In the XV century. the all-Russian chronicle is being revived. The first all-Russian was the Trinity Chronicle, compiled at the beginning of the 15th century. in Moscow.
At the beginning of the XVI century. “The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir” is being created, which claims the legend of the origin of the great princes from the brother of the Roman emperor Constantine named Prus, who was a relative of Rurik, and Vladimir Monomakh received royal regalia (including Monomakh’s hat) from the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomakh.

Culture under Ivan IV the Terrible

 Literature. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, a new literary genre appeared - journalism. An outstanding publicist of the XVI century. was Ivan Semyonovich Peresvetov, who, in his petitions to Ivan the Terrible, proposed a draft reform aimed at strengthening the autocratic power of the tsar while relying on the nobility.
The writings of Prince Andrei Kurbsky "The History of the Grand Duke of Moscow" and his correspondence with Ivan the Terrible, in which Kurbsky opposes the autocracy of the tsar, had a journalistic character.
An outstanding monument of literature of the middle of the XVI century. is the "Domostroy" of Archpriest Sylvester. Domostroy is a set of advice and rules that determined all aspects of the life of a Russian person in the 16th century.
In 1563, Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets organized a printing house in Moscow, in which in 1564 the first dated Russian printed book, The Apostle, was published. In 1574 - the first "Primer".

 Culture. In Russian culture of the XVII century. the process of “secularization” begins, that is, liberation from church-religious regulation.
There is a strengthening of the personal beginning and secular elements in culture. A vivid autobiographical character is "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum, written by himself." The most significant works of journalism of the XVII century. - “Vremennik” by clerk Ivan Timofeev, “The legend of the siege of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery from the Poles and Lithuania and about the rebellions that were later in Russia” by Avraamy Palitsyn, “The Rod of Government” by Simeon of Polotsk, “Politics” by Yuri Krizhanich, etc.
Scientific knowledge is spreading. Historical works are being created: "Scythian History" by Andrey Lyzlov, "The Tale of the Siege of Azov Seat" by Fyodor Poroshin, the first educational and historical work "Synopsis" by Innokenty Gizel.
Relations with other cultures are expanding, including the practice of translating foreign literature into Russian. In the 17th century "Roman Acts", "Great Mirror", "The Tale of Otto, Caesar of Rome", etc. were translated. In the 17th century. 153 translated works are known, of which three-quarters are secular.
The social significance of works of literature and art is increasing. Appears a large number of satirical works - "The Tale of the Shemyakin Court", "The Tale of Ersh Ershovich", "The ABC of the Naked and Poor Man", "The Tale of the Chicken and the Fox".
In the 17th century the last Russian chronicles are being created - in 1630, the New Chronicler, to which sequels were written in subsequent years; in 1652 the set of Patriarch Nikon and others.
New trends in architecture appeared already in the building built in the 1630s. Terem Palace of the Moscow Kremlin. The desire for elegance in architecture found expression in the appearance at the end of the 17th century. new style - Naryshkin (Moscow) baroque.
In painting, the Stroganov school of icon painting (Prokopy Chirin, the Savin brothers, Stepan Arefiev, Emelyan Moskvitin) and the school of Simon Ushakov (Georgy Zinoviev, Ivan Maksimov, Tikhon Filatiev, Kirill Ulanov and others) received the greatest fame.
In the 17th century portrait painting appears. Portraits at that time were called parsers.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the invasion of the German knights brought the country to the brink of death.

Literature of the 13th century

characterized by tragic pathos and the rise of national-patriotic sentiments. About fierce battles with the invaders and the terrible devastation of the Russian land, chronicles tell about the battle on the river. Kalke "Word about the destruction of the Russian land", "The Life of Alexander Nevsky". The memory of the invasion of Russia was preserved in the works of a later time “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu” (XIV century), “Kitezhnaya Legend”.

The last historical and cultural monument is a cycle of legends about the legendary city of Kitezh, which plunged into Lake Svetloyar and thus escaped devastation by the Mongol-Tatars. The cycle was composed over many centuries and finally took shape in the Old Believer “Book, verbal chronicler” (end of the 18th century).

From the 2nd half of the XIV century.

the rise of Russian culture begins, due to the success of economic development and the first major victory over foreign invaders in the Battle of Kulikovo. After this historical event, old cities are being revived and new ones are developing - centers of economic life and culture.

Moscow leads the struggle for the unification of the Russian lands, its influence as one of the cultural centers is growing.

The most outstanding work of this time, Zadonshchina (beyond the Don), is dedicated to the victory at the Kulikovo field.

This work was written in the genre of a historical story by Ryazan Zephanius in the 80s. 14th century The author compares the events of his contemporary life with the events described in the Tale of Igor's Campaign.

The victory on the Kulikovo field is, as it were, revenge for the defeat of the troops of Igor Svyatoslavovich. This victory restored the glory and power of the Russian land.

Architecture was widely developed, primarily in Novgorod and Pskov, cities politically less dependent on the Mongol khans. In the XIV-XV centuries. Novgorod was one of the largest centers for the development of art, economic and political life.

Russian architects continued the traditions of architecture of the pre-Mongolian period (continuity of cultures).

They used masonry of roughly hewn limestone slabs, boulders and partly bricks. Such masonry created the impression of strength and power (and this corresponds to the Russian character). Academician I. E. Grabar noted this feature of Novgorod art: “The ideal of a Novgorodian is strength, and his beauty is the beauty of strength.”

The result of new searches for the traditions of old architecture is the Church of the Savior on Kovalev (1345) and the Church of the Assumption on Volotovo Field (1352).

Samples of the new style are the Church of Theodore Stratilates (1361) and the Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior (1374). This style is characterized by elegant external decoration of temples, decoration of facades with decorative niches, sculptural crosses, and niches with frescoes. The Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior, built in Novgorod, is a typical cross-domed church with four powerful pillars and one dome.

Simultaneously with the temple, civil construction was also carried out.

The Chamber of Facets was built in Novgorod (1433). Novgorod boyars built stone chambers for themselves. In 1302, a stone Kremlin was laid in Novgorod.

Another major economic and cultural center at that time was Pskov. The city looked like a fortress. The architecture of the buildings is severe and laconic, almost completely devoid of decorative ornaments. The length of the walls of the large stone Kremlin was nine kilometers.

Pskov craftsmen won great fame in Russia and had big influence for Moscow construction.

In Moscow, stone construction began in the 2nd quarter of the 14th century. (construction of the white-stone fortress of the Moscow Kremlin). The Kremlin was constantly built and expanded.

Construction was underway in other cities. The largest building of that time was the Assumption Cathedral in Kolomna - on a high basement, with a gallery.

A new direction in Moscow architecture was the desire to overcome the "cubic" and create a new, upward-looking composition of the building due to the stepped arrangement of vaults.

History of Russian painting of the XIV-XV centuries.

as well as architecture, became a natural continuation of the history of painting of the pre-Mongolian period.

Icon painting is developing in Novgorod and Pskov. Novgorod icons of this period are characterized by a laconic composition, a clear drawing, purity of colors, and impeccable technique.

Wall painting in Russia of this time belongs to the golden age. Along with icon painting, fresco was widely used - painting on wet plaster with paints diluted in water.

In the XIV century. fresco painting takes shape compositionally, the landscape is introduced, the psychologism of the image is enhanced.

A special place among the artists of the XIV-XV centuries. occupied by the brilliant Theophanes the Greek (c. 1340 - after 1405). The works of Theophanes the Greek - frescoes, icons are distinguished by their monumentality, strength and dramatic expressiveness of images, bold and free pictorial manner. He embodied in his works the spirituality of man, his inner strength. Together with Andrei Rublev, they paint the Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin (1405).

Another famous master of this time is the great Russian artist Andrei Rublev (c.

1360/70 - approx. 1430). His work marked the rise of Russian culture during the creation of a centralized Russian state and the rise of Moscow.

Under him, the Moscow school of painting flourishes. The works of Andrey Rublev are distinguished by deep humanity, spirituality of images, the idea of ​​concord and harmony, and the perfection of the artistic form.

His most famous work is the icon "Trinity".

In this masterpiece we see the expression of a deep humanistic idea of ​​consent and philanthropy, harmony.

Culture of Russia at the end of the 15th–16th centuries.

For the historical and cultural development of Russian lands, the period of the end of the XV-XVI centuries. was a turning point. The formation of a single Russian state continued, the country finally freed itself from the Mongol-Tatar yoke, and the formation of the Russian nationality was completed. All this had a significant impact on the formation of cultural processes.

Secular and democratic elements are growing in Russian culture.

Works appear in the literature that support the new state policy.

The theory of the origin of the Russian state found its expression in the "Tale of the Princes of Vladimir". It stated that the Russian sovereigns trace their origins to the Roman Emperor Augustus. This idea was supported by the church, which also connected it with the concept of "Moscow - the Third Rome".

The economic and political achievements of Russia at that time had a noticeable impact on raising the level of literacy and education. Literacy was taught in private schools mainly by priests and deacons. In schools they studied the Psalter, and in some - elementary grammar and arithmetic.

An important role in the history of Russian culture was played by the appearance typography. Its first attempts date back to the end of the 15th century, but it began in 1553.

AT 1563 was built first printing house in Moscow. Printing became a state monopoly. The printing house was headed by Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets. In 1564 the first Russian printed book “ Apostle».

Among the literary monuments of that time is a huge 10-volume collection of church literature "Monthly Readings".

These are the biographies of Russian saints written by Metropolitan Macarius, compiled by months in accordance with the days of honoring each saint.

Generalizing annalistic works are created, for example, the Front Chronicle - a kind of world history from the creation of the world to the middle of the 16th century.

Russian monument historical literature is also the "Book of Powers", compiled by Ivan IV's confessor Andrei. It outlines Russian history from Vladimir I to Ivan IV.

The set of everyday rules and instructions contains " Domostroy».

He defended the patriarchal way of life in the family. The book gave advice on how to be frugal and so on.

Architecture of the period of the XV - XVI centuries. reflected an increase international role Russian state. Coming new stage both in temple and civil architecture.

The creation of the Russian centralized state was marked by the construction on the site of the old new Kremlin, the ensemble of which finally took shape in the late 15th - early 16th centuries.

At this time, bricks began to be used in construction. Brickwork replaced the traditional white stone. In 1485 - 1495. The white stone walls of the Kremlin were replaced with brick ones.

In 1475 - 1479. A new Assumption Cathedral was built, which became a classic example of monumental temple architecture of the 16th century.

In 1484 - 1489. Annunciation Cathedral was built - the home church of the Grand Dukes.

In 1505 - 1508.

The Archangel Cathedral was built, in the external appearance of which the secular style of architecture was clearly expressed. The Archangel Cathedral was a tomb temple, where all the great princes were transferred, starting with Ivan Kalita, and then the kings (until Peter I).

Secular buildings were also erected in the Moscow Kremlin, for example, the Faceted Chamber, which was intended for ceremonial receptions.

The highest achievement of Russian architecture of the XVI century.

Culture and life of Russia in the late XV - XVI centuries.

was the construction of the temple tent type, which most clearly expressed the national identity of Russian traditions. An example of a hipped temple was the Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's Cathedral). The cathedral was built in 1555-1560. Russian architects Barma and Postnik in honor of the capture of Kazan.

In the XVI century. "fortification construction" gained enormous scope.

A line of fortifications was erected in Moscow (Kitay-Gorod, then Bely Gorod).

These works were supervised by the famous master Fedor Kon, he also built the Smolensk Kremlin.

Painting of the period of the late XV - XVI centuries. represented by the works of the talented Russian artist Dionisy. He painted the Assumption Cathedral.

Gradually, the range of painting themes is expanding, and interest in non-church subjects, especially historical ones, is growing. The genre of historical portrait is developing.

The painting of this period is characterized by a growing interest in real historical figures and events.

According to academician D.

S. Likhachev, “of all the periods in the history of Russian culture, it is precisely the XV - XVI centuries. are especially important. It was then that the interrupted process of creating a single state was restored and culture was revived ... "

Russian culture at the end of the XV-XVI centuries.

Cultural development of Russia in the 16th century. was determined by factors common to all European peoples: the design nation states, linguistic and ethnic consolidation, the formation of common national styles in art. The spiritual life of society was still determined by the Christian worldview.

1. Features of Russian culture of the XVI century.

1.1. Process activated association of local cultural traditions and formation on the basis of their synthesis of a single national Russian culture.

1.2. Formation of a centralized state was a powerful stimulus for the development of culture.

The need to strengthen the internal and external political position of the state led to an unprecedented growth of state needs in the development of the most diverse areas of material and spiritual culture.

1.3. He played an important role in strengthening the defining positions of the Orthodox Church Stoglavy Cathedral 1551, who tried regulate art.

Creativity was proclaimed as a model in painting. Rublev, from the point of view of its iconography, that is, the arrangement of figures, the use of certain colors, etc. In architecture, the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin was put forward as a model, in literature - works Metropolitan Macarius and his mug.

By limiting the freedom of creativity, the decisions of the Stoglavy Cathedral at the same time contributed to the preservation of a high level of craftsmanship.

1.4. Despite the preservation of the dominant position of the Church, from the XVI century.

in Russian culture more tangibly than before, they begin to manifest secular and democratic elements.

1.5. The formation of domestic culture in the context of the struggle against foreign invaders predetermined a high degree patriotism, dominance heroic theme and pronounced freedom-loving tendencies.

The formation of a single centralized state, linguistic and ethnic consolidation did not lead to the destruction of the cultural identity of numerous nationalities, on the basis of which a single Great Russian was formed.

The synthesis of cultures of different peoples was organically combined with the preservation of many features of the local material and spiritual culture. The culture of the new state bore a pronounced multinational character.

2. LITERACY AND EDUCATION. THE BEGINNING OF PRINTING.

1. The development of the apparatus of power and international relations in connection with the formation of a single centralized state, the strengthening of the church and the further development of crafts and trade caused the growing need for literate people.

2.2. On a nationwide scale education was still primary, had a church character and was available only to the elect. Literacy was spread primarily among the feudal lords, clergy and merchants.

2.2.1. The most common was training at monasteries.

2.2.2. People of the clergy usually taught at home and in private schools; secular literate masters were extremely rare.

the basis of any educational process were the theological disciplines. As a rule, they also taught reading and writing, sometimes the beginnings of arithmetic.

2.2.4. As teaching aids liturgical books were usually used, only in the second half of the century did special grammars and arithmetics appear.

2.3. Development of writing was accompanied by a change in the very technique of writing, adapting to the increased demand for books and various kinds of documents.

Culture of Russia 15th - 16th centuries

2.3.1. The main material for writing was paper, which began to be used as early as the 14th century. They brought it from Italy, France, the German states, Poland.

2.3.2. The dominant type of writing finally becomes the one that appeared in the 15th century. cursive - fluent, speedy writing.

2.4. The expensive and lengthy process of producing handwritten books no longer satisfied the increased demand for them.

An important milestone in the development of Russian culture was the appearance typography, the beginning of which dates back to 1553. The first editions had no authors and were not dated. Therefore, the beginning of book printing is often considered to be 1563, when a printing house was established in Moscow at the expense of the tsar's treasury. Led it Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets. In 1564, the first Russian dated book was published - Apostle, and in 1565 - Book of hours- a collection of daily prayers. Along with religious books, the first Russian primer(in 1574

in Lvov), but only during the sixteenth century. 20 books have been published. The leading place was still occupied by a handwritten book.

3. LITERATURE AND SOCIO-POLITICAL THOUGHT

New social and political conditions brought new problems to the fore. Great attention in Russian literature began to be paid to questions of autocratic power, the place and significance of the church in the state, and the international position of Russia. This contributed to the development of new literary genres.

At the same time, genres and trends traditional for Russian literature have retained their significance.

3.1. Still continued to develop annals, subordinate from now on to a single center and a single goal - the strengthening of the Russian centralized state, the authority of the royal and church authorities.

Chronicler of the beginning of the kingdom describes the first years of the reign of Ivan the Terrible and proves the need to establish royal power in Russia. power book contains portraits and descriptions of the reigns of the great Russian princes and metropolitans, arranged in 17 degrees, from Vladimir I (Svyatoslavich) to Ivan IV. Front Chronicle Code (Nikon Chronicle) is a kind of world history from the creation of the world to the middle of the XVI century.

Further development was historical stories, in which, as before, heroic themes prevailed: Capture of Kazan, On the march of Stefan Batory to the city of Pskov and etc.

3.3. undergoing significant changes travel literature. Secular motifs are on the rise, and fictional stories are increasingly included in travel descriptions.

New genre varieties of travel notes are being formed - stories of Russian ambassadors (article lists, paintings), replies of explorers.

3.4. A characteristic feature of the development of literature of this period is the emergence and rapid development of journalism, which reflected the development of socio-political thought, the emergence of ideological and philosophical controversy.

The first literary and journalistic works supported and substantiated the new state policy. AT Legends about the princes of Vladimir and Tales of Vladimir Monomakh found its expression originated at the end of the XV century.

the concept of the hereditary connection of Russian sovereigns with the Byzantine and Roman emperors. This idea was supported by the Russian Orthodox Church. In the letters of Abbot Philotheus to Grand Duke Vasily III, the thesis Moscow is the third Rome, which became the ideological doctrine of the Russian autocracy.

Talented Russian publicist Ivan Peresvetov in their works The Legend of Tsar Constantine, The Legend of Mohammed-Saltan and others outlined their program of reforms in the country. Ideal state structure he saw in a strong autocratic power based on the local nobility.

Peresvetov advocated the elevation of people according to merit, and not according to wealth and nobility.

3.4.3. An interesting journalistic legacy was left by an associate of Ivan the Terrible, Prince Andrey Kurbsky. In his writings History of the Grand Duke of Moscow etc.) Kurbsky advocated limiting the power of the tsar.

The well-known correspondence between Ivan the Terrible and Andrei Kurbsky, in which they argue about the development of Russia, about the relationship of the monarch with his subjects.

A kind of encyclopedia household and moral norms of the 16th century. is compiled with the participation of the statesman of the times of Ivan the Terrible archpriest SylvesterDomostroy - textbook of morality, which determined the behavior of a person, his duties in the family and society.

These rules subsequently became a classic example of the patriarchal way of life in the family, but at that time it contained revolutionary norms, emphasizing the soul-saving work, giving a woman a very high assessment for those times, etc.

3.6. Among the literary monuments of the XVI century. it is impossible not to mention the 13-volume code of church literature Cheti-Minei(Readings monthly) - compiled Metropolitan Macarius and his students a list of all hagiographic literature and all works of Russian medieval literature approved by the Orthodox Church.

ARCHITECTURE

The development of architecture during this period reflected the growing international prestige of the Russian state. A new stage is coming in both temple and civil construction, characterized by an organic combination of national traditions and the latest achievements of domestic and European architecture.

Many monuments of the late XV-XVI centuries. are outstanding achievements not only of Russian, but also of world architecture.

4.1. Completion of the construction of the ensemble Moscow Kremlin was an important milestone both in the history of Russian architecture and in the history of the Russian state.

Not only the best domestic, but also Italian masters took part in its creation: Pietro Antonio Solari, Aristotle Fioravanti, Mark Fryazin, Aleviz Novy.

In 1485-1495. powerful brick walls and towers were erected around the Kremlin, decorated with dovetail-shaped teeth characteristic of Italian fortress architecture - merlons.

At the same time, there was architectural ensemble Cathedral Square.

- A classic example of monumental temple architecture of the 16th century. became Assumption Cathedral(1475-1479) - a cathedral church built by the Italian architect Aristotle Fioravanti on the model of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, but much larger in size.

— During construction Archangel Cathedral(1506-1508), which was until the beginning of the eighteenth century.

the tomb of Moscow princes and tsars, the architect Aleviz Novy connected the traditional cross-domed structure of the five-domed six-pillar church with the rich architectural decoration of the Italian Renaissance.

— Pskov craftsmen built a nine-domed Blagoveshchensky cathedral(1484-1489) - house church of Russian grand dukes and tsars; and Church of the Deposition of the Robe(1484-1489) - house church of Russian metropolitans.

Secular buildings were also erected in the Moscow Kremlin. Among them Prince's Palace consisting of several interconnected buildings. From this palace survived Faceted Chamber(1487-1491), built by Italian architects Pietro Antonio Solari and Mark Fryazin.

The architectural center of the Kremlin ensemble is Ivan the Great belltower, built in 1505-1508.

and built on in 1600.

The Moscow Kremlin has become a symbol of the greatness and power of the capital of the centralized Russian state.

4.2. In the XVI century. five-domed cross-domed churches were built on the model of the Moscow Assumption Cathedral in almost all Russian monasteries and the main cathedrals of a number of large Russian cities.

Most famous Assumption Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, Smolensky Cathedral of the Novodevichy Convent, St. Sophia Cathedral in Vologda, cathedrals in Tula, Suzdal, Dmitrov and other cities.

4.3. The flowering of domestic architecture also manifested itself in the emergence of a new style - tented construction based on national traditions of wooden architecture, carving, embroidery, painting.

Unlike the cross-domed temples, the hipped-roof churches do not have pillars inside and the entire mass of the building rests only on the foundation.

One of the first monuments of this style is Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye built in 1532

by order of the Grand Duke Basil III, in honor of the birth of his son Ivan, the future Tsar Ivan the Terrible.

The most famous monument of tent architecture is Intercession Cathedral, named at the end of the century St. Basil's Cathedral named after the famous Moscow holy fool, who was buried under one of his aisles.

The cathedral was built in 1555-1561. Russian architects Barma and Postnik in honor of the capture of Kazan by Russian troops .

Tent temples were built in Suzdal, Zagorsk and other cities.

Widespread in the 16th century. received the construction of small stone or wooden township churches. They were the centers of craft settlements and were dedicated to the saint who patronized this craft.

These buildings have not survived to our days.

4.5. AT XVI century there was a rise fortress (fortification) construction.

The construction of fortresses was on a huge scale. Kremlins were built in Nizhny Novgorod, Tula, Kolomna and other cities.

In Moscow, the brick walls of the Moscow Kremlin were built, which had 20 towers (1516). In 1535-1538. Italian architect Petrokom Maly the second line of fortifications was erected, which encircled the trade and craft part of the capital, - China town. In 1585-1593.

under the guidance of the city affairs master Fedora Horse, the third line of stone fortifications of Moscow was built - White City(currently the Boulevard Ring). At the end of the XVI century.

in connection with the raids of the Crimean Tatars, the last line of external fortification of Moscow was built - wooden walls on the Zemlyanoy Val(now the Garden Ring).

5. ART

Fine arts developed in line with the general cultural process and is characterized by two main trends: the erasure of the boundaries of local schools and a noticeable increase in secular elements.

Iconography.

5.1.1. In iconography dominated Moscow school, formed on the basis of a synthesis of local schools and which became the basis of the all-Russian national icon-painting school.

5.1.2. The icon painters of township towns are increasingly deviated from classical norms, there was a greater variety in plots and colors, elements of everyday life appear.

Icons are widely used cycle of the Mother of God rejoices in you, which testifies to the special role assigned by the people's consciousness to the Mother of God.

5.1.3. From the end of the XV century. fine arts are characterized by a growing interest in real historical persons and events, the range of painting themes is expanding. Since the Orthodox Church could no longer resist this trend, the clergy tried to take its development under their control.

Cathedral 1553-1554 allowed to depict on the icons the faces of kings, princes, as well as life letter, those. historical stories. This decision contributed to the development of the genre historical portrait.

On the frescoes of the gallery of the Annunciation Cathedral, traditional images of saints, great Russian princes and Byzantine emperors side by side with portraits of ancient poets and thinkers: Homer, Virgil, Plutarch, Aristotle, etc. Golden Chamber of the Royal Palace(the frescoes have not been preserved).

The largest Russian painter of this period was Dionysius , continuing the traditions of Andrei Rublev. His brushes belong to the frescoes of the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin of the Ferapontov Monastery (1490-1503).

5.2. Has undergone significant changes bookminiature. The replacement of parchment with paper was reflected in its technique and coloring. The new miniatures no longer resembled enamel or mosaics, but watercolors. The characteristic features of the book miniature are the depiction of everyday scenes, the versatility of the composition.

The development of art was regulated by the church and the state: workshops were organized, the canons of icon painting were established, and special decisions were made at Church Councils on the admissibility of depicting individual characters and historical events.

The growth of cities and urban settlements, the development of handicrafts contributed to the further development in the 16th century in decorative and applied arts, the main center of which was Moscow.

The best craftsmen united in the royal and metropolitan workshops.

The crafts of that time were very diverse: wood carving, sewing, silversmithing, chasing, bell casting, copper casting, enamel and others. Outstanding success was achieved by artistic sewing, in which gold and silver threads were used instead of silk, pearls and precious stones were widely used.

The best examples of gold and silver work are stored in the Kremlin in the Armory.

6. RESULTS

7.1. In the XVI century. Despite the contradictory nature of the evolution of Russian statehood, culture continued its development, reflecting both the process of centralization and the problems of the second half of the century.

7.2. There is a formation of common styles in art and common trends in the cultural life of the country.

7.3. During this period laid foundation of multinational Russian culture.

There has been a trend towards secularization culture: realistic features appeared in works of art.

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Russian culture of the late 15th-16th centuries.

2. Folklore.

The theme of the heroic struggle against external enemies continued to be the leading theme of UNT. In this regard, the epics of the Kyiv cycle were reworked and modernized. The heroes of the heroic epic became participants in the struggle against the Kazan and Crimean khanates.

One of the most common genres of oral folk art in the 16th century was historical songs.

Songs about the capture of Kazan were especially popular, where the victory over the Kazan Khanate was regarded as the final victory over the Tatar-Mongols.

One of the heroes of UNT was Ivan the Terrible. His image in folk art is very controversial.

There are songs where he is connected with the ideal of a good king, and songs where all the negative traits of his character were noted. Malyuta Skuratov became the negative hero of folklore.

A special place is occupied by a cycle of songs about Yermak, where for the first time in Russian folklore an active active mass of the people is depicted.

Ermak became the embodiment of the people's ideal of fighting the tsarist governors. Liberation from serfdom was presented as a realistically achievable ideal.

3. Education and printing.

With the development of the feudal economy, handicrafts, trade, especially with the development of the apparatus of power and international relations, the need for literate people increased.

The church also needed them. Education was limited to the acquisition of elementary literacy. A great achievement of Russian culture in the middle of the 16th century was the beginning of book printing. The first printing house appeared in 1553 and entered science under the name anonymous, since the names of the authors are unknown.

The quality of the print impresses with its strict artistic design and the absence of typographical errors.

In total, about 20 books were published until the end of the 16th century, all of church and religious content, but neither in the 16th nor in the 17th centuries did the printed book replace the handwritten one.

Chronicles and stories, legends and lives were written by hand.

4. Literature.

In the 16th century, the first real journalistic works appeared in the form of messages and letters intended not for one addressee, but for a wide audience.

The central place in the secular journalism of the 16th century is occupied by the work of Ivan Semenovich Peresvetov. He put forward a program of reforms affecting various spheres of public life. Chronicle writing continued to develop in the 16th century. The writings of this genre include "The Chronicler of the Beginning of the Kingdom", which describes the first years of the reign of Ivan the Terrible (1534-1553) and proves the need to establish royal power in Russia.

In the middle of the 16th century, Moscow chroniclers prepared a huge chronicle collection - a kind of historical encyclopedia of the 16th century, the so-called "Nikon Chronicle" (in the 17th century it belonged to Patriarch Nikon). Along with the annals, further development was given to historical stories that told about the events of that time - “Kazan Capture”, “On the Coming of Stefan Batory to the City of Pskov”, “The History of the Kazan Kingdom”.

The most striking example of the domestic genre of the 16th century was Domostroy, i.e.

e. home economics, which contained advice on cooking, receiving guests, housekeeping, paying taxes, raising children. Its author was supposedly the archpriest of the Kremlin Cathedral of the Annunciation Sylvester.

Culture of Russia in the 15th–16th centuries

In the 16th century, the first textbooks on grammar and arithmetic appeared, as well as dictionaries - "ABCs".

4.Architecture and painting.

At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century, a new stage began in the development of Russian architecture. The innovation of this time was the spread of bricks and terracotta (fired colored clay). Brickwork replaced the traditional white stone. Moscow finally acquires the status of an all-Russian art center. The architectural complex of the Kremlin is being completed.

By the beginning of the 16th century, Russian architects had invented new system brick ceilings - a cross vault, based not on internal pillars, but on external walls.

Such small churches were built in suburbs (the Church of the Annunciation on Vagankovo, the Church of St. Nicholas in Myasniki).

Another of the outstanding manifestations of the flourishing of Russian architecture of the 16th century was the construction of hipped temples, dating back to Russian wooden architecture.

The painting of the 16th century is characterized by an expansion of the range of topics, an increase in interest in non-church topics from world, and especially Russian history. Painting was greatly influenced by the official ideology.

In general, allegorical plots are a distinctive feature visual arts 16th century.

With the growing interest in historical topics, the development of the genre of historical portraits is associated, although the depiction of real faces was conditional.

At the end of the 16th century, the "Stroganov school" appeared. She focused on the actual painting technique. Distinctive features were: the mastery of external performance (the desire to depict the special refined beauty of figures, clothes), while the inner world of the characters goes into the background. Icon painters for the first time begin to sign their works.

The unity of the Russian lands could not but be reflected in the culture of liberated Russia in the 16th century. Construction was carried out on a grand scale, architecture, painting and literature developed.

Architecture

In the 15-16th centuries. construction was predominantly of wood, but its principles were also applied in stone architecture.

Fortifications and fortresses were restored, and Kremlins were built in the cities of Russia.

Architecture of Russia of the 16th century. was rich in outstanding buildings of church architecture.

One of these structures are the Church of the Ascension in the village. Kolomenskoye (1532) and St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow (1555-1560).

Many erected churches and temples belong to the common at that time (typical for wooden temples). Ancient Russia) tent style.

Under the leadership of Fyodor Kon, the most powerful fortress was erected (in Smolensk) and the White City in Moscow is surrounded by walls and towers.

Painting

To the painting of the 16th century. in Russia is mainly icon painting.

The Stoglavy Cathedral accepted the works of A. Rublev as a canon in church painting.

The brightest monument of icon painting was the “Militant Church”.

The icon was created in honor of the capture of Kazan; it interprets the described event as a victory for Orthodoxy. In the painting of the Golden Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin, the influence of the West was felt. At the same time, the church was opposed to the penetration of genre and portrait painting into the church.

Printing house

In the 16th c. the first printing house appeared in Russia, book printing began. Now numerous documents, orders, laws, books could be printed, although their cost exceeded handwritten work.

The first books were printed in 1553-1556.

"anonymous" Moscow printing house. First accurately dated edition refers to 1564, it was printed by Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets and is called "Apostle".

Literature

Changes in politics, consisting in the formation of autocracy, stimulated the ideological struggle, which contributed to the flourishing of journalism.

Literature of Russia in the 16th century. includes "Stories about the Kazan Kingdom", "The Legend of the Princes of Vladimir", the 12-volume book "Great Cheti-Minei", containing all works revered in Russia for home reading (works that were not included in the popular collection faded into the background) .

In the 16th c. in Russia, the clothes of the boyars, simple in cut and shape, acquired extraordinary showiness and luxury thanks to decorative ornaments.

Such costumes gave the image splendor and majesty.

On the vast territory of Russia lived different nations, so the clothes differed depending on local traditions. So, in the northern regions of the state, the women's costume consisted of a shirt, a sundress and a kokoshnik, and in the southern regions it consisted of a shirt, kichka and a poneva skirt.

Men's suit: a long shirt made of homespun cloth (to the middle of the thigh or to the knees), ports (narrow and tight-fitting legs). At the same time, there were no special differences in the style of clothing of the nobility and peasants.

Question 16.

time of troubles russia at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries
Beginning of the Time of Troubles (Troubles)

1598-1613 - a period in the history of Russia, called the Time of Troubles.

At the turn of the 16-17th centuries.

Russia was going through a political and socio-economic crisis. Livonian War and Tatar invasion, as well as oprichnina Ivan the Terrible contributed to the intensification of the crisis and the growth of discontent in society. This was the reason for the beginning of the Time of Troubles in Russia.

First period of Troubles

The first stage of the Troubles is characterized by the struggle for the throne. After death Ivan the Terrible his son Fedor came to power, but he was unable to rule.

In fact, the country was ruled by the brother of the king's wife - Boris Godunov. Ultimately, his policy caused discontent among the masses.

The turmoil began with the appearance in Poland of False Dmitry 1st (in reality, Grigory Otrepyev), who allegedly miraculously survived the son of Ivan the Terrible.

He lured a significant part of the Russian population to his side. In 1605 False Dmitry I was supported by the governors, and then by Moscow. And already in June he became the legitimate king. However, he acted too independently, which caused discontent of the boyars, and he also supported serfdom, which caused a protest from the peasants. May 17, 1606 False Dmitry 1st was killed, V.I.

Shuisky with the condition of limiting power. Thus, the first stage of the Troubles was marked by the reign False Dmitry 1st (1605-1606).

Second Period of Troubles

an uprising broke out, whose leader was I.I. Bolotnikov. The ranks of the rebels included people from different strata of society: peasants, serfs, small and medium-sized feudal lords, servicemen, Cossacks and townspeople. In the battle of Moscow they were defeated. As a result, Bolotnikov was executed.

Dissatisfaction with the authorities continued. And soon appears False Dmitry 2nd.

In January 1608, his army headed for Moscow. By June, False Dmitry II entered the village of Tushino near Moscow, where he settled. Two capitals were formed in Russia: boyars, merchants, officials worked on two fronts, sometimes even received salaries from both tsars. Shuisky concluded an agreement with Sweden, and the Commonwealth began aggressive hostilities.

False Dmitry II fled to Kaluga.

Shuisky was tonsured a monk and sent to the Chudov Monastery. In Russia, an interregnum began - the Seven Boyars (a council of seven boyars).

Boyar Duma made a deal with the Polish interventionists, and on August 17, 1610, Moscow swore allegiance to the Polish king Vladislav. At the end of 1610, False Dmitry II was killed, but the struggle for the throne did not end there.

So, the second stage of the Troubles was marked by the uprising of I.I. Bolotnikov (1606-1607), the reign of Vasily Shuisky (1606-1610), the appearance of False Dmitry 2nd, as well as the Seven Boyars (1610).

Third Period of Troubles

The third stage of the Time of Troubles is characterized by the struggle against foreign invaders.

After the death of False Dmitry II, the Russians united against the Poles. The war took on a national character. In August 1612 militia of K. Minin and D. Pozharsky reached Moscow. And on October 26, the Polish garrison surrendered. Moscow was liberated. The troubled times are over.

Zemsky Sobor appointed king Mikhail Romanov.

Results of the Troubles

The results of the Time of Troubles were depressing: the country was in a terrible situation, the treasury was ruined, trade and crafts were in decline. The consequences of the Time of Troubles for Russia were expressed in its backwardness in comparison with European countries.

It took decades to restore the economy.

Question 17. Russia after the Troubles, the first Romanovs on the throne.

Culture of Russia in the 16th century: main directions

Board of Mikhail Fedorovich and Alexei Mikhailovich.
Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov
Mikhail Romanov became the first ruler from the Romanov family and the founder of a new dynasty. He was elected in 1613 at the Zemsky Sobor.

It was Mikhail Romanov who turned out to be the closest relative of the former Russian rulers. At that time, the Polish prince Vladislav and Prince Karl-Philip of Sweden also claimed the throne of Russia.

After the liberation of Moscow by Minin and Pozharsky, Mikhail's mother and the future ruler himself stayed in the Ipatiev Monastery. After the accession of his son, his father, under the name Filaret, became patriarch.

In fact, it was he who ruled the country until 1633.
The Poles sought to prevent the election of a new tsar. They tried to kill Michael, who was in the monastery, by sending a whole detachment for this. But, all the Poles died on the way, thanks to the feat accomplished by Ivan Susanin.
With the beginning of the reign of Mikhail Romanov, gradually began to improve economic life countries.

In 1617, it was possible to conclude a peace treaty with Sweden, according to which the territory of the Novgorod region was returned to Russia. In the next 618, after the signing of an agreement with Poland, Polish troops were also withdrawn from Russia. Russia is losing Chernigov, Smolensk and Seversk lands. However, Prince Vladislav calls himself the Russian Tsar, not recognizing the rights to the throne of Michael.
Approximately in the same period, in order to protect against the raids of the Tatars provoked by Turkey, a number of security features appeared in the South of Russia.

The Cossacks actively participated in the fight against raids on the border lands. On the contrary, quite friendly relations were established with Persia. Due to the lands of Siberia, the territory of the country has noticeably increased.
During the reign of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, the taxation of townspeople noticeably increased.

This time was also marked by an attempt to create a regular army. Moreover, foreigners became officers in the formed regiments. Towards the end of Michael's reign, the first regiments of dragoons appeared, used to guard the border. The biography of Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, the founder of the great dynasty, ended in 1645. The burden of power passed to his son Alexei.

Culture of the Russian lands in the XV century. In this century, Moscow becomes the center of the all-Russian national culture. During this period, the role of the Russian language is increasing, works are being created dedicated to the topic of state building, and interest in the history of the Fatherland is growing. In modern literature, the Russian culture of this time is assessed as the ʼʼRussian Renaissanceʼʼ. In all major cities In northeastern Russia, monastic schools and colleges are being restored and expanded, old manuscripts are being rewritten and new manuscripts are being created. Literacy is on the rise

various segments of the population, especially urban. In the field of literature, the Moscow chronicle occupies a special place.

In 1408 ᴦ. at the court of the metropolitan, a tradition was taking shape of compiling all-Russian annals, the first of which is the Trinity Chronicle. By 1480 ᴦ. includes the creation of the Moscow chronicle, which became the ideological justification for the unification of lands around Moscow.

The victory on the Kulikovo field gave a powerful impetus to the development of patriotic feelings of the Russian people and prompted the creation of a cycle of literary works, among which the most profound and significant is ʼʼZadonshchinaʼʼ - a poem written by Zephanius Ryazanets shortly after the battle. Its characteristic feature is its connection with the ʼʼThe Lay of Igor's Campaignʼʼ. Creating his work, Zephanius borrowed literary images, stylistic turns and expressions, artistic techniques, and even individual passages from the author of the ʼʼWordʼʼ. But this is not an imitation, but a conscious comparison of past and present events, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ allows you to express main idea the author is a guarantee of victory in the unity and coherence of the actions of the Russian princes.

The rise of Russian culture and art was facilitated by the restoration and expansion of cultural ties with the countries of Europe and the East. Special meaning Moscow had a commonwealth with the fraternal peoples of Bulgaria and Serbia. Thus, hagiographic literature is permeated with South Slavic influence.

In the era of Ivan III, great importance was attached to the development of Moscow architecture, which was associated with the strengthening of the grand ducal power. During this period, the restructuring of the architectural appearance of the Moscow Kremlin was launched, carried out by Russian masters together with invited Italian architects. In 1479 ᴦ. Italian

Aristotle Fioravanti completed the construction of the main temple of the Russian state - the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin, then the Faceted Chamber was built, the temple of Ivan Lestvichnik, the palace of the Grand Duke, the Archangel Cathedral, as well as the Kremlin walls and towers. Along with Fioravanti, Italian architects Anton Fryazin, Marco Fryazin, Pietro Antonio Solari, Aleviz Fryazin and Aleviz Novy took part in their creation. In general, Italian artisans, artisans, and artists had a significant impact on the formation of Russian culture at that time. But domestic creations were no less skillful. For example, it was built by Pskov architects in 1489 ᴦ. in the Kremlin, the Grand Duke's Church of the Annunciation.

During this period for the highest level development rose church painting. At the end of the XIV - beginning of the XV century. in Veliky Novgorod, Moscow, Serpukhov and Nizhny Novgorod, the painter Theophanes the Greek, who came from Byzantium, worked. He created the painting of the Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street in Novgorod, together with Simeon Cherny - the painting of the Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin and the Archangel Cathedral. The great Russian artist of this era was Andrey Rublev. He participated in the painting of the old Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin, together with Theophan the Greek and Prokhor from Gorodets, painted the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and the Spassky Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery. His brush belongs to the masterpiece of world painting icon ʼʼTrinityʼʼ.

At the end of the XV century. icon painter Dionysius made a huge contribution to the development of painting. Together with his sons Theodosius and Vladimir, as well as other students, he created frescoes in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin, murals in the temples of Pafnutyevo-Borovsky, Joseph-Volokolamsky and Ferapontov monasteries. The famous icon ʼʼThe Savior in Strengthʼʼ belongs to his brush.

At the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. a significant role in the development of culture was played by the formation of a unified Russian state and the completion of the formation of the Russian (Great Russian) nationality and the unified Russian language, in which the Moscow dialect and the Vladimir-Suzdal dialect took the leading place, becoming the basis of colloquial and business language.

Culture of the Moscow state in the XVI-XVII centuries. At the end of the XV - beginning of the XVI century. the relationship between church and state began to play a special role in the development of Russian culture. It was their character that determined such an important factor in the history of the Russian Middle Ages as the influence of the church on spiritual life. Theocratic aspirations of the hierarchs of the Russian Orthodox Church at the end of the 15th century. Av came into conflict with the grand-princely policy, incl. due to the secularization of church holdings. The position of the church was also weakened by the internal struggle between the groups that existed in it, as well as the growth of heretical movements. From the beginning of the XVI century. the union of the state and the "Josephian" church is gradually taking shape, which put forward the theory of the divine origin of the grand duke's power, securing the support of the sovereign. The latter, abandoning plans for secularization, received the ideological support of the church. The further process of strengthening autocratic power was accompanied by an increase in the church and religious influence on spiritual life. The Church sought to prevent the penetration of Western Catholicism and the spread of secular knowledge, she established rigid canons for architecture, painting, and literature. The upheavals of the oprichnina and the tragic events of the Time of Troubles noticeably slowed down the formation of an all-Russian cultural space. The coming 17th century became a turning point in Russian history, not only politically, but also culturally. Began to take shape in the XVI century. the tendency towards the secularization of culture, the gradual destruction of medieval religious isolation and the appeal to reason in the 17th century. became the main content of the cultural-historical process.

One of the most common genres of oral folk art is gradually becoming a historical song.

Significantly increased the need for both the state and the church in literate people. At the Stoglavy Cathedral 1551 ᴦ. It was decided to create "book schools" in the cities. In addition to clerics, secular ʼʼmasters of lettersʼʼ, who opened private two-year schools, also acted as teachers. Education was limited to the assimilation of elementary literacy and opened up opportunities for further self-education. In the XVI century. highly educated Russian people were already not only in the spiritual, but also in the secular environment. The handwritten book became more widespread. In connection with the increased need for it, the process of writing was simplified: cursive writing became established not only in business correspondence, but also in book writing. Monasteries remained the main centers for the production and storage of books. Secular nobles also possessed significant book collections. But the owners of books often became townspeople and even peasantsʼʼ who bought books on the market.

A major event in the cultural life of the country was the beginning of book printing. In 1553-1555 he. in Moscow, unknown masters carried out the publication of the ʼʼGospelʼʼ and ʼʼLenten triodiʼʼ. But the organization of book printing in Russia is associated with the name of Ivan Fedorov. In 1564 ᴦ. in the Moscow printing house created at the expense of the treasury, he published the first Russian printed dated book ʼʼApostolʼʼ. Ivan Fedorov was not only a publisher, but also an editor of the book. Under circumstances that are not entirely clear, he, together with his assistant Peter Mstislavets, soon left for Lvov. At the same time, the printing of books in Moscow did not stop; it was continued by Fedorov's students.

In the 17th century education covers all the wider sections of the population. Significantly increased literacy among the nobles and townspeople. The first uniform textbooks appear and become widespread.

At the end of the XVII century. virtually every third or fourth city dweller could read and write. The bulk of the serfs and the female part of the country's population remained illiterate. In 1665 ᴦ. at the Zaikonospassky monastery, a school of grammar was opened under the guidance of the educator Simeon of Polotsk, which prepared clerks for orders. And in 1687 ᴦ. on the initiative of Sylvester Medvedev, the first higher educational institution in Russia, the Slavic-Greek-Latin School (from 1701 ᴦ. - Academy), the program of which included both secular and spiritual sciences, began to operate.

The growth of education of the population led to an increase in demand for books. During the 17th century The Moscow printing house (Printing Yard) published about 500 titles of books, among which secular literature occupied a significant place. In the 1660s. The first bookstore opens in Moscow. The collections of private libraries are growing. In the 17th century under the apothecary order, the first scientific library in Russia begins to work. From 1621 ᴦ. at the royal court, a handwritten newspaper ʼʼ Chimes ʼʼ appears, containing translations of foreign news.

In the XVI-XVII centuries. there is an active process of accumulation of scientific knowledge. new in the 17th century. is the emergence of written manuals containing information on the practical application of geometry, mathematics, physics, chemistry. Thus, the need to describe lands and measure them caused the utmost importance of creating a manual for calculating areas, determining the quality of land plots. In artillery and Pushkar business, in addition to mathematical calculations, knowledge of a number of physical phenomena and chemical properties substances. In 1621 ᴦ. Οʜᴎsim Mikhailov (Rodyshevsky), on the basis of foreign and domestic experience, compiled the ʼʼ Charter of military, cannon and other matters related to military scienceʼʼ, containing practical information in this area. Medical knowledge, based on centuries of experience, also had an applied character. traditional medicine. In 1543 ᴦ. a translation of a kind of German medical reference book ʼʼVertogradʼʼ appeared. And in 1581 ᴦ. The first pharmacy opened in Moscow to serve the royal family. The needs of the general population for information from the field of medicine were satisfied by various ʼʼHerbalsʼʼ and ʼʼHealersʼʼ. original and translated.

Thanks to Russian navigators and travelers, geographical knowledge is expanding, descriptions of countries, drawings and maps of Russian lands are being compiled. In the 17th century great Russian geographical discoveries were made, which made a great contribution to world science. Russian pioneers and navigators were ahead of Western geographers in the study of Asia. Οʜᴎ compiled maps and descriptions of the territories of Siberia and Far East. In 1633-1638 he. Cossacks Ilya Perfilyev and Ivan Rebrov discovered the Yana and Indigirka rivers. Following this, Mikhail Stadukhin reached Kolyma, and Kurbat Ivanov went to Baikal. Explorers Semyon Dezhnev and Fyodor Alekseev in 1648 ᴦ. opened the strait between Asia and America. The expeditions of V. D. Poyarkov (1643-1646) and E. P. Khabarov opened the way along the Amur to the Sea of ​​Okhotsk and the Pacific Ocean, and the Cossack Pentecostal V. V. Atlasov in 1697-1699. explored Kamchatka. Article lists (reports) of Russian embassies made a great contribution to the study of the geography of Asian countries. Rich information about China was collected during the embassies of Ivan Petlin (1618-1619) and Fyodor Baikov (1654). Compiled by Russian diplomats detailed descriptions of this country gained fame not only in Russia, but also in Western Europe. Particularly interesting was the trip to Beijing of the Russian embassy headed by Nikolay (Milescu) Spafariy (1675-1678), which enriched world science with the most valuable information about the lands of Siberia and China. At the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries. a consolidated map of the Russian state (ʼʼBig drawingʼʼ) was compiled, which has not been preserved. In 1627 ᴦ. in the Discharge Order, the ʼʼBook for the Big Drawingʼʼ was created - an index and commentary on the summary map. In the second half of the century, drawings and descriptions of Siberia were being compiled. By 1701 ᴦ. Semyon Remezov completed work on the ʼʼDrawing Book of Siberiaʼʼ, which became an important event in geography and ethnography.

The development of socio-political thought was facilitated by the situation of an acute ideological struggle in which the formation of the Russian state took place. The focus was on the fundamental issues of the life of the country.

The ideas of expanding cultural ties with Western Europe are becoming widespread. These views were reflected in the writings of I. A. Khvorostinin and the ambassadorial order of Grigory Kotoshikhin, who in 1664 ᴦ. fled to Sweden and compiled his own description of the Muscovite state there.

The development of literature in the XVI-XVII centuries. reflected the processes taking place in the socio-political life of the country. official character in the 16th century. acquires chronicles.

Russian architecture in the first half of the 16th century. is distinguished by the intensive construction of stone churches and fortresses, although in general Russia - both urban and rural - remains wooden. The Renaissance features introduced by Italian architects had almost no continuation in Russian architecture. On the contrary, there is a return to national origins, which manifested itself in the revival of the tent style traditional for ancient Russian wooden architecture. Masterpieces of tent architecture are the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye and the Pokrovsky Cathedral (St. Basil's Cathedral), built in Moscow by Russian masters Postnik Yakovlev and Barma in honor of the capture of Kazan. Many churches and temples are being built at the expense of wealthy merchants. The construction of military engineering structures is actively underway. In the years 1500-1508. Pyotr Fryazin erects a stone Nizhny Novgorod Kremlin, the construction of fortresses is carried out at the beginning of the century in Pskov and Tula. About 1516 ᴦ. the construction of the brick Moscow Kremlin, which replaced the white-stone Kremlin of the era of Dmitry Donskoy, is being completed. In 1535-1538 he. in Moscow, the second line of fortifications was erected - Kitaygorod, and by the end of the century - the third line - the White City. Many monasteries became powerful fortresses. The result of the development of this direction of architecture in the XVI century. became the grandiose Smolensk Kremlin (1595-1602, architect Fyodor Kon).

In the 17th century in Russian architecture, decorativeness is enhanced. Despite the resistance of the church, a secular principle penetrates into religious construction. Vivid examples of the tent style are the Moscow churches of the Nativity of the Virgin in Puginki (1649-1652) and the Trinity in Nikitniki (1635-1653). Architects are increasingly using brick, but the main building material is still wood. The pinnacle of wooden architecture was the royal palace in Kolomenskoye (1667-1668), decorated with carvings and multicolor painting. Buildings of government offices, trade and industrial enterprises. The use of polychrome tiles of figured bricks, white stone details began, which gave the buildings a festive look.

In the last quarter of the XVII century. a new architectural style arises - Moscow (ʼʼNaryshkinʼʼ) baroque, characteristic of small churches in the estates of Russian nobles. Its features were secular elegant appearance of temples, elegance of decor and strict symmetry. In this style at the turn of the XVIII century. The churches of the Intercession in Fili, the Trinity in Troitsky-Lykovo and the Church of the Savior Not Made by Hands in Ubory were erected. An example of a civil structure built in the same style was the famous Sukharev Tower in Moscow (1692-1701) by architect M. I. Choglokov.

Russian painting of the XVI-XVII centuries. characterized by a significant expansion of topics. Thus, in the painting of the Golden Chamber of the Kremlin (1547-1552), along with church subjects, the events of Russian history are reflected. Genre scenes are at the forefront of hagiographic icons. In the middle of the century, the icon ʼʼThe Militant Churchʼʼ was created dedicated to the capture of Kazan, on which Ivan the Terrible, Alexander Nevsky, Dmitry Donskoy are depicted. In the 17th century The Kremlin Armory became the main artistic center where new realistic tendencies developed. In her workshops, work was carried out for the royal court. At the head of the art school was the master of the Armory Simon Ushakov, who for 30 years actually led the icon painters of the whole country. The works of this artist are characterized by a departure from canonical images, an interest in depicting a human face (icons ʼʼGreat Bishopʼʼ and ʼʼSavior Not Made by Handsʼʼ, a picturesque portrait of Moscow rulers from Ivan Kalita to Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and two princes ʼʼPlanting the Tree of the Russian Stateʼʼ). Portraiture became the first secular genre of fine art. In the first half of the XVII century. portraits (ʼʼparsunyʼʼ) were painted in an icon-painting manner, and they began to be painted with oil paint on canvas later. The latter include portraits of Prince B.I. Repnin, steward G.P. Godunov and other statesmen.

In the 17th century a distinct tendency towards the secularization of Russian culture was manifested in the spread of secular musical and theatrical productions in the court environment. So, in 1672 ᴦ. at the Moscow court, an acting troupe was established under the direction of I. G. Gregory, discharged from Europe, plays were staged on ancient themes, for example, ʼʼTemir-Aksakov's actionʼʼ and ʼʼArtaxerxes actionʼʼ, and comedies by Molière were played in the house of Prince V.V. Golitsyn.

The most complex processes that took place in the culture of the Muscovite state in the 17th century testified to the expansion of the creative range of Russian culture and the crisis of the church worldview, overcoming national isolation, introducing into the spiritual life of society a personal principle that medieval culture did not know before.

Russian culture XIV – XVIIcenturies

The cultural development of Ancient Russia, which had accumulated extensive experience in the construction and improvement of cities, created wonderful architectural monuments, frescoes, mosaics, icon paintings, was interrupted by the Mongol-Tatar invasion, which led the state to economic and cultural decline. The revival of Russian culture became possible only at the end XIII - beginning. XIV centuries Moscow became the center of the struggle against the Mongol-Tatar yoke, gradually turning into the political and cultural center of the Russian lands.

Formation towards the end XV centuries of the centralized Russian state put forward the task of widely expanding the construction of fortifications in cities and monasteries, and in its capital, Moscow, to build temples and palaces that correspond to its significance (previously, the Mongols prohibited stone construction, fearing the construction of defensive structures). To do this, architects from other Russian cities were invited to the capital, as well as Italian architects and engineers (one of the outstanding Italian architects who worked in Russia was Aristotle Fioravanti, who built the Assumption Cathedral and the Faceted Chamber of the Kremlin). The Moscow Kremlin, which housed the residences of the Grand Duke, Metropolitan, cathedrals, boyar courts, monasteries, was in the second half of XV in. expanded to its current size. Red Square arose to the east of the Kremlin, and it was surrounded by a wall of white stone (later the white brick was replaced with red).

The new tasks of state building had a direct impact on literature as well. Old Russian writing fully recorded the change in the people's consciousness, embodied in the desire for national unification. Numerous editions of stories about the Battle of Kulikovo (“The Legend of the Battle of Mamaev”, “The Tale of the Zadonshchina”, etc.) present it as a nationwide feat. In many subsequent literary sources, Prince Dmitry Donskoy appears as a national hero, and his heirs, the Moscow princes, as national sovereigns. Ideology did not stand aside either. Its task was to search for new ideological forms of state building.

The definition of the vector of spiritual development was concretized with the fall, under the onslaught of the Turks, of the Byzantine Empire. Russia, the most powerful country in the Orthodox world, began to strive for a dominant position among other Orthodox states, turning into an outpost of the true (Orthodox) Church. While the Turks destroyed all the Orthodox monarchies of the East and captured all the patriarchates, Moscow took it upon itself to preserve and maintain Orthodoxy both in itself and in the entire East. The Moscow prince was now becoming the head of the entire Orthodox world (especially after the marriage of Ivan III on the heiress of the last Byzantine emperor, Sophia Palaiologos). The Pskov monk (“elder”) Philotheus developed a theoretical justification for such aspirations, expressed in the formula “Moscow is the third Rome”: “like two Romes have fallen, and the third (Moscow) stands, and there will be no fourth.” This attitude led the Moscow authorities to resolve to make the Moscow Principality a "kingdom" through the official adoption of the title of "Caesar" by the Grand Duke - in our interpretation of the "Tsar", to accept the coat of arms of the Roman and Byzantine Empires (double-headed eagle).

Already in the first decades after the Mongol-Tatar invasion, painting was revived. The centers of its new development are Novgorod, Rostov, Tver. Novgorod and Pskov schools paid special attention to fresco painting. One of the brightest representatives of this trend was Theophanes the Greek. His images, embodying ascetic religious ideals, are distinguished by psychological tension, his writing technique by dynamics and originality of techniques, coloring by extreme restraint.

By the end of the XIV - the beginning of the XV centuries intensifies artistic role Moscow. Feofan Grek, Andrey Rublev, Daniil Cherny worked here. The school created by Feofan in Moscow stimulated the development of local masters, who, however, developed a style different from Feofan's. In 1408 Andrey Rublev and Daniil Cherny performed a new painting of the Dormition Cathedral in Vladimir. These frescoes in traditional iconographic images reveal the deep spiritual world and thoughts of contemporaries. The enlightened benevolent faces of the apostles leading the people, the soft, harmonious tones of the painting are permeated with a sense of peace. Rublev had a rare gift to embody in art the bright sides of life and the state of mind of a person. In his works, the inner turmoil of the ascetic detachment of Theophan's images is replaced by the beauty of peace of mind and the power of conscious moral rightness. Rublev's works, being the pinnacle of the Moscow school of painting, express ideas of a broader, nationwide character. In the remarkable icon "Trinity", painted for the Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, Rublev created images that far outgrow the narrow framework of the theological plot he developed, embodying the ideas of love and spiritual unity. In the last third XV in. Dionysius begins his artistic activity. In the icons and frescoes of Dionysius and his school, there is a certain uniformity of techniques, the attention of the masters to the artistic form, the features of festivity and decorativeness. The works of Dionysius are solemn and graceful, but psychologically they are inferior to Rublev.

The revival of arts and crafts proceeded more slowly. This was explained by the fact that many craftsmen were taken prisoner and a number of craft skills were lost. But gradually Russian jewelry art is also revived. Chasing, finift, painting on ground enamel, casting and other techniques were mainly oriented towards floral and animal ornaments made in a patterned oriental style. Excessive passion for the splendor of the ornament, to XVII in. led to the loss of artistic measure, especially when decorating objects with precious stones and pearls, from which patterns were assembled that were previously made of gold. Even in iron products there is a passion for patterned forms (for example, the Tsar Cannon by Andrei Chokhov). Plant and animal motifs also predominated in the monuments of bone and wood carving that have come down to us. In addition, carvings were often colorfully painted. Sewing also had much in common with painting. AT XVII in. in Russia, golden lace with geometric mesh motifs, or with plant elements, is spreading. Sometimes pearls, silver plaques, colored drilled stone were introduced into the patterns.

Polish-Swedish intervention began XVII in. delayed the development of art, but by the middle of the century, artistic creativity noticeably revived. During this period, a new genre appeared in Russian art - the portrait. The first portraits were painted in the icon-painting tradition, but gradually the techniques of Western European painting appear in them - an accurate depiction of facial features and a three-dimensional figure. The expansion of areas of culture, associated with the technical achievements of that time, was also reflected in such a direction as book publishing.

Traditionally, in Russia, books were written by hand. At the same time, the text was decorated with ornaments, denounced in a rich (often with gold and precious stones) cover. But beauty did not always compensate for the shortcomings of handwritten books, first of all, the length of writing and errors that appear when texts are rewritten multiple times. The Church Council of 1551 was even forced to draw up a resolution to prevent the rewriting of books with distorted text. The need for correction and unification of church texts, not least influenced the opening of the first printing workshop in Moscow. Its founders were Dyak Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets. During the 12 years of the existence of the printing house (from 1553 to 1565), 8 large books of not only religious, but also secular nature were printed in it (for example, the Book of Hours, which became the first alphabet).

However, book printing in that period did not receive proper development, like many other areas of art and science characteristic of European culture. The reason for this lies in the desire for a kind of isolation of Russian culture, especially manifested in XVI century. The explanation for these conservative tendencies should be sought, first of all, in the history of the formation of the Muscovite state, which was constantly subjected to external aggression both from the West and from the East. Cultural identity in the critical periods of Russian history became perhaps the only saving and unifying factor. Over time, the cultivation of one's own traditional culture took on hypertrophied forms and rather interfered with its development, closing the possibility of the achievements of the arts and sciences of other countries penetrating Russia. The obvious lag (primarily in the scientific and technical sphere) was overcome only by Peter I , and in a decisive and ambiguous way.