Throughout the three-century history of industry in the Moscow region, various factors have played an unequal role in its development. At the stage of the birth of industry, the leading role was played by natural and foreign policy factors. Historical scribal books of the 16th century testify to the development of craft activities in the Moscow region. The main types of crafts are the construction of stone buildings and fortresses, the supply of the army, the production of household items. The focus on the military supply of soldiers led to the production of gunpowder, weapons, fabrics for uniforms and equipment. The first textile industries based on local raw materials (flax, hemp) were initially located depending on natural factors. Thus, linen crafts were concentrated in the more humid western regions of the Moscow region, where flax was mainly cultivated. Linen and rope production gravitated towards the south, where conditions were better for the cultivation of hemp. In both cases, the main factor in the placement of these crafts was water: rivers are both communication routes and water for soaking linen and hemp trusts. Before Peter 1, linen production was dominated by home production, spinning and weaving of flax by peasants, mainly women. Sheep wool processing also took place at home. Rough peasant cloth was produced, and felt was made from wool.
The first manufactories emerged in the 17th century, home weaving began to be supplanted by manufactories. In Peter's time there were 16 of them, and already in 1811. there were already 23 cloth factories in Moscow. In the Moscow region, most of them were located along the Klyazma, Yauza, Vori rivers.
☼ As the demand for glass was enormous, glass factories emerged. In the middle of the 17th century, glassware of its own production appeared in Russia, and not imported from abroad, the Italian Miniet was the first to set up a glass factory in the village of Izmailovo, near Moscow, on state support. Several years later, another glass factory was set up by Y. Koet in Dukhanin, 40 versts from Moscow. He received materials for glass from Germany until he discovered them in Russia. " - this is how the famous Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky described.
The first private faience factory in Russia was opened in 1724 in Moscow, another state-owned one was founded in 1765 near Dmitrov by the English merchant Gardner (a factory in Verbilki).
The well-known pottery production in Gzhel (Bronnitsky district, 45 km from Moscow) made only the things necessary for home use from local simple clay: pots, jugs, etc. Since 1810, various porcelain vessels began to be made in Gzhel from Glukhovsky clay mined in the Glukhovsky district of Chernigov province. Subsequently, following the example of Gzhel, they opened porcelain factories in the surrounding villages. All these villages in relation to porcelain production took the collective name Gzhel.
The main result of the initial period of industrial development was the formation of professionally trained personnel from among the rural population of the villages surrounding Moscow.
The cotton industry in Russia began to establish itself at the end of the 18th century. It should be noted that weaving appeared before the spinning of cotton; for a long time, the manufacture of fabrics from English yarn spread to peasant life, factories near Moscow, displacing the spinning and weaving of flax. In 1811, there were 27 calico factories in Moscow. After 1812, cotton production, due to the destruction of Moscow factories, developed in breadth: for the first time cotton factories appeared in Serpukhov, in Vokhna (renamed into Posad Pavlovsk in 1845), Zuevo and other villages. In the middle of the 19th century, there was a transition from manufactory to factory production. Enterprises appeared in places with a well-established sale of fabrics and labor - in the villages of Ramenskoye, (1833), Reutovo (1843). Spinning machines are imported from England, and the transition to mechanical weaving takes place. The production becomes more complicated, the finishing of fabrics is being improved. In Glukhov, Orekhov, Yegoryevsk, Serpukhov - the headquarters of the Morozovs, Khludovs, Garelin manufacturers, the first textile mills were formed. Subsequently, these cities became large centers of light industry in the Moscow region.
Silk production was concentrated in Moscow, where in 1763 there were 34 silk manufactories. Raw materials for production were obtained from the east. The Moscow government tried to call from abroad skilled craftsmen for silk factories. on which Russians could learn how to cultivate silk. The first silk factory was founded in the 17th century in Moscow. , but soon silk weaving moved to the Bogorodsky district (the area of present-day Noginsk) and to the entire Priklyazma floodplain.
☼ Neither Moscow nor St. Petersburg can compete with the Bogorodsky district in this respect. Here, in every village, in every hut, one can find either silk reeds, or winders, or dyers, or weavers. In the Bogorodsky district, the village of Vokhna is especially famous. When in 1845 this village, together with the surrounding villages, was renamed into Posad Pavlovsk, there were 15 silk and paper factories, 8 dyeing factories.
By the end of the named period, the backbone network of industrial points in the region was basically formed, and a territorial-industrial cycle arose.
The next stage of industrial development is characterized by the emergence of new industries. At the beginning of the 20th century, the total share of the textile industry is declining, giving way to industries related to the processing of metal, wood, and ceramics. Mechanical engineering immediately becomes of national importance. In 1913, the Moscow region produced 70% of the products of the light industry in Russia. It was at this time that industries related to metal processing, the preparation of new mechanisms and machines were developing. After the First World War, factories from Poland and the Baltics were evacuated to Moscow and the Moscow region, the cities of Roshal, Krasnozavodsk, Klimovsk appeared, where these factories were located. In Podolsk, the production of sewing machines is organized on the basis of the factories of the Singer company moved here.
After 1917, with the development of the country's industrialization, a certain specialization was assigned to the center of Russia. Mechanical engineering is becoming the main industries in Moscow and the Moscow region, and the chemical and light industries continue to develop. Mechanical engineering occupies a leading position in the industry. Railways are being built, steam locomotives (Kolomna) and carriages (Mytishchi) are needed. Many workshops of textile factories that made dyes become chemical factories. Workshops that made machine tools, equipment for the textile industry become mechanical engineering enterprises.
The leading factors in the development of industry of this period were: the benefits of its geographical location (centrality), enhanced by the development of railway construction. availability of labor resources. As a result, by 1917, the largest industrial complex in the country was formed in the region, the basis of which was the textile industry.
The leading direction in the development of the industrial complex of the region in the post-revolutionary period is the restructuring of the structure of the economy to ensure the industrialization of the country. The leading role in this was played by the availability of qualified personnel in the region, the accumulated production potential, developed transport, the provision of local energy resources (peat,). Energy played an important role in the development of the economy of the Moscow Region. According to the GOELRO plan (1921), it was planned to create a network of power plants throughout Russia, operating on local raw materials. In the Moscow region, the Shaturskaya and Kashirskaya power plants were built, operating on local peat. Thanks to electrification, the Moscow region has become a support base for industrialization. The result was the creation of the largest complex of manufacturing industries of universal specialization.
By the middle of the 20th century, the mechanical engineering of the Moscow region was the basis of the industry. The concentration of qualified personnel, the growth of scientific institutions and centers contributed to the development of science and labor-intensive industries in mechanical engineering - machine tool construction, the production of tools, complex equipment. Moscow and the Moscow region worked to improve the technical level of the entire country. Many cities in the Moscow region have become centers of the defense industry. Satellite cities appeared near Moscow, in which enterprises using scientific potential were concentrated (Khimki, Reutov, Mytishchi, Lyubertsy, Zhukovsky, Korolev and others). The structure of the economy of the Moscow region became more and more complicated, more and more new branches arose. An important feature of the development of industry in the Moscow region is that the core of the region has always been and is the center of the emergence of everything new, which then spreads from here first to the Moscow region, and then to other regions of the country.
▼ Remember the main thing!
Factors of development and location of industry in the Moscow region.
| № | the years | Factors | directions | results |
| 1700-1812 | Diversity natural conditions... (rivers, forest) High population density. Excess labor force. | The emergence of manufactories using water energy and using manual labor. The origin of cloth production. | Creation of a network of industrial districts in Moscow, formation of qualified personnel in the region. | |
| 1813- 1861 | The beginning of the machine coup | The emergence of the factory industry. The origin of the cotton industry. | Creation of industrial centers in the region. The emergence of the textile industrial cycle. | |
| 3. | 1862-1917 | Availability of qualified personnel. Railway construction. Centrality. Availability of local fuel resources. | Building up economy. potential. The origin of mechanical engineering and metalworking. | A textile-industrial complex was formed, the beginning of the formation of a radial-ring structure. |
| 4. | 1918- 1945 | Availability of qualified personnel, accumulated economy. potential. | The emergence of new industries. | Formation of the machine-building complex, concentration of the region's industrial potential in Moscow. |
| 5. | 1946- 1985 | Availability of qualified personnel. Scientific potential. Stagnant phenomena in the country's economy. | Lack of scientific and industrial integration. | Concentration of industrial and n-t potential in Moscow and the Moscow region. |
| 6. | 1985- present time. | Cardinal restructuring of the country's economic complex. | Moscow region - capital concentration. Availability of qualified personnel, capacious consumer market. | Crisis phenomena in the country's economy Rapid introduction of new economies into the economy. structures. |
Test yourself!
1. Analyze the table, highlight the main stages of industrial development in the Moscow region.
2. What factors contributed to the formation of industry in the Moscow region?
3 What industries, in your opinion, should be developed in the Moscow region at the present stage ?.
5. Describe the economic and geographical position of your settlement, city, administrative region. ... What are the factors of development and formation of his economy?
§ 2 Features of the modern economy of the Moscow region.
The Moscow region has an old industrial basis for the development of the economy. The existing industrial structure is complex, it is not similar to that in other areas. The Moscow region can be presented as a territorially reduced model of the Central District, everything characteristic of the Central District is concentrated here. Variety of activities, many branches of production and non-production areas. The region is characterized by a high proportion of those employed in management and science.
In terms of industrial potential, the Moscow region is second only to such subjects of the federation as Moscow and St. Petersburg (with the region.) The Moscow region, as a constituent entity of the federation, is a donor of the federal budget: it takes 3rd place after Moscow and the Khanty-Mansiysk autonomous region by the share of the formation of federal budget revenues and by the total collection of taxes. There are 11 donor districts of the regional budget in the Moscow region: Leninsky (Mostransgaz JSC), Domodedovsky (Domodedovo airport), Krasnogorsky, Mytishchinsky, Khimki, Podolsky, Odintsovsky, Voskresensky districts. Electrostal, Dzerzhinsky (CHP), Bronnitsy (jewelry factory).
The Moscow region is the center of economic life, where the largest companies, banks, insurance companies, trade organizations operate. In Moscow, according to experts, up to 80% of all financial transactions carried out in the country are carried out. The development of market relations in the Moscow region is proceeding at a faster pace than in other regions of Russia. A system of lease relations, joint-stock companies, small enterprises is being established, privatization is being carried out (transfer of real estate from state to private and mixed ownership). As a result, about 50% of industrial enterprises are enterprises of mixed ownership - joint stock companies (JSC) of open and closed types. Examples of joint-stock companies in Moscow are: ZIL, Trekhgornaya Manufactory, and the Krasny Oktyabr confectionery factory. The privatization process is active in construction, transport, trade, public catering, and consumer services.
Since the raw material base of the region is very limited, the industry is based on imported materials. The assessment of natural resources and conditions can be carried out according to 14 factors, evaluating resources according to a 5-point system: 0 point - lack of a resource, 1 point - resources of local importance; 2 points - resources of regional significance; 3 points - resources of national importance. The assessment of natural conditions can also be assessed on a 5-point scale: 0 - no conditions; 1 point - favorable impact: - 1 - adverse impact on production and population. (see table)
Total 8+ 3 = 11 points
(Compare the ratio for Tyumen: 12 points for resources and -5 points for conditions, 7 in total)
Summing up assessments of natural conditions and resources, comparing them. we obtain a summary estimate showing the degree of influence of natural conditions and resources on the development of the region's economy. If we add to the advantage of the natural conditions of the region the benefits of geographical location, functional saturation (variety of functions), a well-developed infrastructure, and the availability of highly qualified personnel, then the desire of investors in this region and the associated significant prospects for social economic development Moscow region.
§ 3 Scientific and technical complex of the Moscow region.
A significant part of the country's scientific potential is concentrated in the Moscow region. In the Moscow region there are more than half of the scientific centers of Russia, 5 well-known world-class scientific centers (Dubna, Chernogolovka, Protvino, Pushchino, Troitsk), 450 organizations of science and scientific services. In total, the scientific and information complex employs more than 16% of the region's labor resources.
The most saturated in terms of the number of scientific organizations are: Balashikhinsky, Lyuberetsky, Mytishchinsky, Noginsky, Podolsky, Pushkinsky, Solnechnogorsky, Khimki, Shchelkovsky districts. In the Moscow region, research is carried out in the field of natural and exact sciences, energy, automation and telemechanics, materials science and electronics. A special place is occupied by research for the leading sectors of the economy of Moscow and the Moscow region: mechanical engineering, the chemical industry, etc. All the main components are represented in the Moscow Scientific Complex: training of highly qualified personnel, academic and industrial science.
A large center of academic science is located in Dubna. The Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) carries out research in nuclear physics, energy physics, radiobiology and medicine. The Institute has broad international scientific and technical ties.
The Noginsk Scientific Center is located in Chernogolovka. The oldest institutes of the center are the Institute of Physical Chemistry and the Institute of Solid State Physics. In addition, there is an Experimental Scientific Instrumentation Plant with a unique production potential. The scientific center has connections with scientific centers and universities, firms in many countries of the world.
Protvino is home to Russia's largest research center in the field of high energy physics. The city of Pushchino is known as the largest center of biological science. In addition to fundamental research, 8 physical institutes located in the Troitsk center have accumulated significant developments in science-intensive products, in which many Russian enterprises and foreign scientific centers are interested. These are technologies for growing artificial diamonds for the manufacture of tools suitable for the processing and oil and gas industry. Technologies for the production of high-purity materials for the electronics industry have been developed.
There are more than 140 large research and development organizations in various industries in the Moscow region. They ensure the implementation of scientific research, create new technologies, materials, products for the industry of the Moscow region, and other regions of the country. A large group of sectoral institutes, centers, enterprises (aviation, rocket and space, radio-electronic, precision engineering, instrument-making, chemistry), which previously belonged to the defense complex (military-industrial complex - the military-industrial complex), is now in the process of conversion and reconstruction.
The aviation industry of the scientific and technical complex of the Moscow region is represented by well-known research, design and test institutions. In the Moscow region there is a Research Complex named after V.I. N.I. Kamov (Lyubertsy) where they create helicopters that outstripped all foreign analogues in their characteristics; the machine-building plant "Zvezda", where the means of rescue of aviation and space crews, etc. are developed and produced. Experimental and test bases of the aviation design bureaus are operating in the Moscow region. Ilyushin, Tupolev, Sukhoi, Mikoyan, Mil, Yakovlev.
The oldest scientific organization in the Moscow region is the Central Aerodynamic Institute (TsAGI was established in 1918) in Zhukovsky. TsAGI is engaged in scientific research, advanced fundamental and industrial research of all types of aircraft. This experimental base is in many ways superior to similar installations of European countries and the United States. It is no coincidence that the air show in Zhukovsky is one of the largest and most authoritative in the world. Here in Zhukovsky is the largest scientific center - Letno Research institute them. Gromov, where all domestic aircraft and aviation equipment are tested.
The organizations of the rocket and space industry, which are part of the scientific and technical complex of the Moscow Region, occupy a leading place not only in Russia, but also in the world. Unique scientific institutions of this complex operate in the Moscow region. The Central Scientific Research Institute of Mechanical Engineering and the SP Korolev Rocket and Space Corporation Energia (located in the city of Korolev) occupies a leading position in Russia. ... The institute is the ancestor of the rocket and space industry, and the development of domestic cosmonautics is associated with it.
The Institute studies the development of rocket and space technology, participates in the development of research projects outer space, creation of practically all manned rockets, launch vehicles and automatic spacecraft. The list of Korolev's enterprises includes the scientific and industrial association "Composite". This association in its activities, in addition to the defense industry and space technology, focuses its activities on the oil and gas industry, transport equipment, construction, medicine.
Research and Production Association of Power Engineering "Energomash" in Khimki is the leading Russian organization for the development of powerful liquid-propellant rocket engines. Aviation Design Bureau A.S. Lavochkin (Khimki) develops and implements large-scale space exploration projects, including the development of spacecraft for international projects to explore Mars, Venus and other planets of the solar system. The institute is the ancestor of the rocket and space industry, and the development of domestic cosmonautics is associated with it.
V.P. Chelomai's group (now NPO Mashinostroyenia in Reutov) worked on creating cruise missile for the Navy. Now NPO Mashinostroyenia is also developing in the field of aerospace technology, information technology, and alternative energy.
In Jubilee, there is a research institute associated with the creation of rocket and rocket and space technology, the development of strategic missile forces for the Ministry of Defense. In the city of Fryazin, there is a whole complex of institutes and experimental productions of the electronic industry, special technological equipment for instrument making, various electronic products for the military-industrial complex are being developed. The Istok enterprise develops equipment for satellite telecommunication systems, medical and household devices.
The All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Physical, Technical and Radio Engineering Measurements in Mendeleevo (Solnechnogorsk District) conducts research, develops and manufactures high-precision instruments, equipment for radio electronics, nuclear power, astronautics, and medicine.
Obolensk State Institute of Applied Microbiology, (located in the Serpukhov District), is engaged in developments in the field of molecular biology and microbiology for use in agriculture and medicine. The All-Russian Scientific Research and Technological Institute of the Biological Industry (located in the Shchelkovo District) conducts scientific research in the field of industrial biotechnology. In the Odintsovo region there is the Scientific Research Institute of Agriculture of the Central Regions of the Non-Black Earth Region, which conducts research in many branches of agriculture: improving the soil fertility of the Moscow region, seed production, etc. ; The All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Pond Economy is located in the Dmitrovsky district. He conducts research aimed at the rational use of inland water resources.
In terms of intellectual potential, the Moscow region is unmatched in Russia. Much credit for this belongs to higher educational institutions. In the Moscow region there are 13 state higher educational institutions, more than 40 branches and faculties of Moscow universities, non-state higher schools... Among state universities, the following are widely known: Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (MIPT) in Dolgoprudny, Moscow State University forests in Podlipki, Pushchino State University, International University nature, society and man in Dubna, the State Academy of the sphere of everyday life and services in Tarasovka, the Institute of Physical Culture in Malakhovka, the Moscow State Pedagogical University in Mytishchi, etc.
Test yourself!
1. What factors contributed to the transformation of the Moscow region into the largest research and production complex in the country?
2. Based on the text, draw up a schematic map of the location of the research and production complex of the Moscow region
3. Using the proposed reference words: scientific potential, scientific center, science-intensive industries, scientific and production associations, scientific and industrial complex, technical modernization, reconstruction, prepare a message (abstract) on the topic: "The structure of the scientific and industrial complex of the Moscow region", "Science cities of the Moscow region ". The presented task is creative, you can suggest your own topic, the direction of studying the research and production complex of the Moscow region.
3. Select, using various sources of information, materials for the topic: "Energy of Moscow and the Moscow region", prepare messages on the issue of interest to you.
§4 Sectoral structure of the industry of the Moscow region. Mechanical engineering
The diversified structure of the industry, a significant share of science-intensive industries, the high dynamism of the sectoral structure due to the high general creative atmosphere (the presence of research centers, laboratories, design bureaus, etc.) determined the overall high technical level of industrial development in Moscow and the Moscow region in comparison with the average Russia. Manned spacecraft, computers, subway cars, equipment for the food and light industry, rolling of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, chemical threads and fibers, laboratory instruments, fabrics, carpets, porcelain - it is impossible to list everything that is produced here for the Russian and international markets ... The industry of the Moscow region is characterized by the following industry structure:
Sectoral structure of the industry of the Moscow region
The basis for the development of the regional economy has become a powerful energy complex, which began to form back in the 20s of the 20th century. According to the country's electrification plan, large thermal power plants, Kashirskaya and Shaturskaya GRES, were built in the region. These stations used local raw materials - peat. They became the basis of the existing regional energy system.
Now a network of large thermal power plants has been built around Moscow and in the region - in Lyubertsy, Orekhovo-Zuevo, Stupino GRES in Mytishchi (Severnaya), in Elektrogorsk, Kashira, they supply heat and electricity to Moscow (Lyubertsy and Severnaya CHPP), large cities near Moscow and adjacent areas ... All thermal power plants operate on imported fuel oil, diesel fuel, and natural gas. The first pumped storage station (PSPP) in Russia was built in the Sergiev Posad region on the Kunya river
Test yourself!
1. From which industries is the structure of the industry of the Moscow region formed?
2. What factors determined the development of these industries?
3. How are complex issues of power supply in Moscow and the Moscow region resolved, in your city, village?
4. In the Moscow region, during the construction of the Severnaya CHPP, opinions were expressed "for" and "against" its construction. What reasons would you share? Justify your choice.
Leading industries. Mechanical engineering.
The structure of mechanical engineering is dominated by complex qualified types of products: the production of machine tools, machinery and equipment for construction, transport, light industry, optical-mechanical production, radio-electronic industry, instrument making, rocket and space, aviation and others. The machine-building complex of the Moscow region is closely connected with the capital. Large cities near Moscow (Lyubertsy, Mytishchi, Reutov, Khimki) closely cooperated with Moscow. Some of the machine-building centers were formed on the routes connecting Moscow with the metallurgical south. (Podolsk, Kolomna, Serpukhov, Kashira). All cities near Moscow have diversified mechanical engineering. Some of their products are unique.
Heavy and transport engineering is represented by several enterprises. Leading among them: the production association "Kolomensky Zavod" and the joint-stock company "Metrovagonmash" in Mytishchi. Kolomensky Zavod, over a century and a half of its existence since 1869, has produced more than 200 types of steam locomotives. Currently it specializes in the production of diesel locomotives of the latest designs. The Mytishchi Machine-Building Plant was founded in 1897; it produced freight cars, trams for Moscow, and dump trucks. Since 1934 the plant has been providing subway cars in Russia and the CIS. The plant is working on the development of a new type of Yauza cars. By technical specifications they are not inferior to foreign counterparts: they are quiet, comfortable. Since 1992, in Demikhovo (Orekhovo-Zuevsky district), after the reconstruction of the machine-building plant, they began to produce cars for electric trains. The first electric train was put on the line in 1993.
Three factories in the Moscow Region produce buses. The LIAZ bus plant in Likino-Dulyovo (Orekhovo-Zuevsky district) was reconstructed; the bus plant in Yakhroma (Dmitrovsky district) is being reconstructed, which replenishes the LIAZ bus fleet. An automobile plant (GOLAZ) was put into operation in Golitsyno, producing city, tourist, intercity buses together with the German company Mercedes-Benz. Passenger cars of especially small class "Oka" are produced in Serpukhov.
The production association "Elektrostalmash" is the only enterprise in the country that designs, manufactures and supplies complex equipment for the production of pipes. Podolsk Machine-Building Plant named after Ordzhonikidze (ZIO brand) is one of the leading enterprises for the production of powerful boiler units for thermal power plants and the manufacture of equipment for oil refining and nuclear energy. More than 40 oil refineries in Russia are equipped with the equipment of this refinery. The following factories are known in Russia for their products: Shchelkovo pump production plant; locking equipment of Chekhov's Energomash; diesel and fuel equipment for tractors and combine engines manufactured by the Noginsk Fuel Equipment Plant.
Agricultural engineering is represented by factories in Lyubertsy, Noginsk, Aprelevka.
Machine tools are produced in Klin, Dmitrov, Yegoryevsk (metal-cutting), Troitsk (programmed machines), Kolomna (heavy machine tool plant), etc. ) are produced in Podolsk, Kolomna, Lyubertsy, Klimovsk. Optical and mechanical production is represented by factories in Krasnogorsk, Lytkarino
In the Moscow region there are many unique industries related to mechanical engineering. Among them: Mozhaisk Medical Instrumental Plant, which produces more than 400 types of products: scalpels, tweezers, syringes, etc. Special workshops supply microsurgery with products.
The Orekhovo-Zuevsky plant "Transprogress" produces systems for pipeline pneumatic transport and magnetic levitation. The Dmitrov excavator plant produces land reclamation machines, sprinklers, mechanisms for digging trenches and mining operations.
Test yourself!
1 Prove the leading role of mechanical engineering in the economy of the Moscow region, specialization in the production of products that determine scientific and technical modernization, progress.
2. Why did the machine-building complex become a pivotal one in the economy of the Moscow region?
3. What sectors of this complex are predominantly developing? What impact do they have on the economy?
All over the world, the location of various industries, transport, agriculture does not happen by chance, but under the influence of certain conditions. Conditions that provide big influence the choice of location for the development of production are called factors of production location.
Factors influencing the location of production
The factors of the location of production forces are a set of external conditions and resources, the correct use of which ensures the best result in the development of economic activity and the location of production.
The most important factors in the location of production include:
- Raw materials - location of enterprises in close proximity to sources of raw materials. Most factories and plants are built near large water bodies, mineral deposits. Thanks to this, time and financial costs are saved for the transportation of large volumes of goods, and the cost of finished products will be significantly lower. The raw material factor has a decisive influence on the location of enterprises for the production of cement, potash fertilizers, timber, for the beneficiation of non-ferrous metal ores.
Many natural resource deposits are almost completely devastated. This led to the fact that mining enterprises began to develop new places, most often difficult to access. For example, currently oil and gas production takes place in bays and seas. Such industries require large investments and are highly polluting.
Rice. 1. Oil production at sea.
- Fuel - this factor has a decisive influence on the location of enterprises that use a large amount of mineral fuel in their work: fuel oil, natural gas, coal. These industries include the chemical industry, ferrous metallurgy, and heat power engineering.
- Energetic - determines the location of industries using large amounts of electricity. Such industries are called energy-intensive. These include enterprises for the production of paper, chemical fibers, light non-ferrous metals. They are placed near large hydroelectric power plants.
- Labor - influences the location of production facilities that employ a large number of labor resources, including high-level specialists. Such industries are called labor-intensive. These include vegetable growing, rice growing, production of personal computers and electronic equipment, and clothing production. Such enterprises are located in densely populated areas with cheap labor.
Rice. 2. Manufacture of electronic equipment.
- Consumer - affects the location of enterprises producing consumer goods: clothing, footwear, food, household appliances. They are found in almost all large settlements.
- Transport - This factor is very important for industries whose products need to be supplied to other regions. To reduce additional transport costs, many industries are located near major transport hubs.
- Ecological - the role of this factor lies in the negative impact of most chemical industries on the environment. That is why they cannot be placed in densely populated areas. Otherwise, they are subject to more stringent requirements for purification technologies.
Table "Factors of production location"
|
Production location factors |
Industries |
|
Raw materials |
Extractive industry, sawmills, production of non-ferrous metal ores |
|
Fuel |
Heat power engineering, ferrous metallurgy, chemical industry |
|
Energetic |
Plants for the production of paper and man-made fibers |
|
Labor |
Garment manufacturing, vegetable growing, electronic equipment manufacturing |
|
Consumer |
Consumer goods manufacturing |
|
Transport |
Railway production, automotive |
|
Ecological |
Chemical and metallurgical production |
Production location conditions
The location of production also depends on such external conditions as the natural environment, population, base for scientific and technical potential, socio-historical conditions for the development of specific production.
One of the most important conditions for the location of many industries, in particular, agricultural activities, are agro-climatic indicators. The natural fertility of soils, the water regime of the territory, the specificity of the climate largely determine the productivity of such sectors of the economy.
Rice. 3. Agriculture.
The connection between the conditions and factors of the location of production is very great. Only with a competent approach, taking into account all indicators, it is possible to create the most efficient and productive production.
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Influence of the natural factor on the level of wealth of society, demographic growth, the rate of historical development throughout history has been extremely strong. That is why the image of nature has always been the most important in the spiritual life of society, people deified her, sang, feared and were grateful to her for her generosity. Global climatic changes (glaciation, warming, drying up of the steppe, etc.) have played an important role in the formation of humanity and its history. The natural environment was able to greatly speed up or slow down various processes. This is reflected in various theories, which are discussed below. In the early periods of history, the life of an individual and human collectives depended on the characteristics of nature to an incomparably greater extent than today. However, even modern society, having solved many important problems, not only failed to escape from the influence of nature, but unexpectedly faced global and very complex environmental issues... The life of a modern person, despite the tremendous advances in science and civilization, is still connected by countless threads with nature (through food, water, air, microorganisms, etc.) and depends on it. Ultimately all that it possesses modern man, in addition to knowledge and information, it is made of natural material, albeit transformed. The study of the mutual influence of nature and society in the past and present is one of the most important tasks of both historical and many other sciences.
1. SYSTEM "SOCIETY - NATURE"
Natural (geographic) environment. Society cannot exist outside the natural (geographic) environment. This Wednesday is a complex complex of various conditions (climate, relief, soil, minerals and much more). The influence that it has on the life of society is called a natural (geographical) factor. . It is quite understandable that in relation to each specific society, the natural environment will be a part of the planet, in relation to humanity in general - the entire globe and the surrounding space (including space). Society and nature form a single system, since between them there is: a) metabolism; b) mutual influence; c) mutual transformation; d) education common to both elements. For the analysis of social development itself, certain researchers have repeatedly tried to take the natural environment outside the "brackets" of society as something external, but more often such attempts for social science turned out to be not particularly productive.
The structure of the natural environment in terms of its relationship with society, it can be represented as consisting of three parts: 1) cultivated nature, that is, included in the economic turnover; 2) "reserve", That is, not yet used, but suitable for economic needs at a given level of development; 3) uncultured, that is, unsuitable for economic needs with available opportunities. Cultivated nature, with the further influence of people, begins to turn into artificial geographic environment or even technosphere.
In general, the role of natural factors in production is decreasing, and the role of artificial ones is growing, although new spheres of nature are constantly being mastered: space, sea depths, etc. Thus, in a sense, history appears as a transition from the natural environment (biosphere) to social and what is often called the technosphere. But, unfortunately, until now, man's attitude to nature often resembles the actions of a barbarian who, in order to find a stone for construction, breaks a temple. Unfortunately, it also holds true to one researcher's grim humor that the process of civilization is "going from a wild place to a garbage pit."
Changing the natural environment occurs in two senses: a) absolutely (physically), including under the influence of man (plowing the land, deforestation, etc.); b) relatively, due to the growth technical capabilities societies (for example, earlier oil was extracted only on land, now - from the bottom of the seas). When a new level of human development is reached, new sources of natural wealth are opened up for it. Thus, one and the same nature as a geographic environment will change along with the development of society, both absolutely and relatively. And with an increase in population density, the level of science, technology, the size of states, etc., the former boundaries set by the geographic environment are being overcome, and its structure is changing.
Two types of influence of nature on society: direct and indirect. Direct influence is not mediated by society, it is expressed: a) in the genetic changes of people under the influence of various natural factors or due to the selection of certain qualities, for example, when eating a particular food; b) in destabilizing phenomena, both negative (disasters, climate deterioration, epidemics, etc.) and positive (for example, climate improvement). Indirect influence is realized through social relations, labor, distribution of wealth obtained from the use of nature, social consciousness, etc. Consequently, the influence of the same natural factor on different societies (and the same society in different eras) can cause different reactions depending on the level of development of society, its structure, historical moment, and a number of other circumstances.
The more complex the interaction of nature and society, the less the direct influence of nature on society and the more indirect. In this case, the direct influence is either constant if the surrounding nature does not change (then the society, once adapted to it, already functions according to certain rules), or this influence is associated with very sharp changes (in case of catastrophes, etc.), which causes strong but not systemic changes in society. Indirect influence turns out to be much more systemic and, as a result, more important, since any technological or major social changes, as well as changes in demographic proportions in society, inevitably change to some extent: a) relations between people regarding the possession of certain natural resources ; b) the relationship between people and nature, including psychological and technological. The latter may be associated, for example, with a more or less careful attitude towards nature, more or less intensive use of its resources.
The aspect of the more important (but not so obvious at first glance) indirect influence of nature on society was underestimated by the thinkers of the past, who mainly tried to find direct forms of the influence of nature on society (for example, arguing that the climate forms the character of the people). That is why it is so important to study the mechanisms and channels by which the natural environment indirectly affects the structure of society.
The growing complexity of interaction between nature and society, including the growth of indirect influence, can be represented as the complication of the productive forces (see diagram 1), where with each level the role of nature in the direct provision of people with the products of labor becomes less, but the degree of complexity of interaction between nature and society increases.
Natural level characteristic of a hunting-gatherer society; socially natural- for the agrarian and handicraft; socio-technical level- for industrial; scientific information- for the modern.
The role of the natural environment is the greater, the more place it occupies in the composition of the social system, especially in the composition of the productive forces.... In other words, the role of the geographic environment is the greater, the more ancient the period.
However, although in some aspects the dependence of society on nature decreases, it is necessary to take into account another type of dependence between nature and society: the more complex and larger the society, the more dangerous changes in natural conditions become... As the complexity and integration of society grows, changes in the natural environment can cause more and more global consequences, since due to the complexity of society, any fluctuations can lead to tension and destruction of the system. That is why climate change in the 21st century. can be very dangerous for humanity. And although, of course, society has a lot of opportunities to eliminate the consequences, but, firstly, not all the consequences can be eliminated, and secondly, such elimination will require monstrous costs and great sacrifices.
Forms of the relationship between nature and society. There are five main forms of human relationship with nature: a) adaptation; b) unconscious negative or positive influence (typical for all periods, especially for pre-industrial); c) domestication for economic and other purposes (arose with the advent of agriculture); d) influence on natural processes with the help of science (originated in industrial production); e) conscious regulation of the functioning of the natural environment in order to preserve it (at the moment, some elements of such influence are being formed).
These forms often appear as different aspects of the same actions. After all, wherever people lived, in one way or another they not only adapted to the environment, but also adapted it in some way. At first - only the places of their direct habitation, then over the centuries - millions and millions of hectares of arable land, and today the question is how to plan the impact on nature on a global scale. Before the invention of agriculture, people mainly used the first two forms of relationship with nature. The invention of agriculture led to the beginning of the domesticization of the natural environment (plowing, felling, irrigation, etc.). In the era of industrial production, people began to use science and the laws of nature discovered by them to consciously influence natural processes, and in the modern period, ecological methods of regulating nature are being formed (but they are still in their infancy).
Gradually, the role of transformation increases, and adaptation decreases, but does not disappear.... As new levels of human achievement in its relationship with nature open up new opportunities and sources of wealth.
ROLE OF NATURAL FACTORS IN HISTORY
In the era of appropriating economy, adaptation (adaptation) man to nature It was main driving force development, thanks to which people have settled almost all over the planet. The entire way of life - the size of collectives, tools of labor, methods of management, basic social relations - depended on the surrounding natural conditions, with a change in which it was necessary either to adapt again or to move. For many millennia, there was glaciation on Earth. Adapting to the cold climate, man invented warm clothing, food preparation, and learned to hunt the largest animals. As a result, people already had a sufficient level of development of productive forces and sociality so that some of the collectives could not only survive in more severe conditions, but even prosper on the basis of obtaining a certain surplus of production. Warming has brought about tremendous changes. Then, about 14-10 thousand years ago, the climate changed dramatically. Warming began, the glaciers receded, resulting in fewer large mammals. People in a number of regions switched to individual hunting (Markov 1979: 51; Child 1949: 40), invented bows, traps, nets, harpoons, axes, etc., which ensured the autonomous existence of small groups and even individual families. Primitive people in general achieved relative well-being and, according to the theory of M. Salins (1999), even were able to achieve relative abundance. Gradually, people settled almost all over the planet. The nature of the relationship of people with the environment varied significantly, but in general it was adaptive to the natural environment (see, for example: Leonova, Nesmeyanov 1993; see also: Grinin 2006: 82–83).
Agrarian and craft society. For the first time, agriculture emerged in the Middle East. The transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture (as well as the transition to irrigation agriculture) required special conditions... Thus, the domestication of wild-growing grasses, according to V.I. Here we see an important pattern in relation to the interaction of nature and society: for the initial transition to a new level of development until the last centuries of history, society required special natural conditions.
In the agrarian era, the nature of the relationship between nature and society changes due to the transition to a sufficiently meaningful and active transformation of the environment on a large scale (artificial irrigation, deforestation and burning of forests, plowing virgin lands, fertilizing, etc., not to mention the creation of cities , roads, etc.). The use of natural forces is also significantly expanding, including the power of animals, wind and water (previously only fire was actively used). Natural raw materials are transformed into completely new things and materials (metals, fabrics, pottery, glass). The transition to a manufacturing economy and its development led to tremendous demographic growth. The population of the earth has increased tenfold.
During the industrial period society overcomes many of the restrictions imposed by nature and strengthens its own influence on it. People master the forces of nature that were previously completely or mostly inaccessible to them (the energy of steam and electricity), create new materials (using chemistry), develop new mechanisms based on the laws of physics, and defeat previously incurable diseases. Huge areas are used for cities, roads, mining. During this period, the idea was affirmed that man conquered nature and became its master. As a result of predatory exploitation, many species of animals were exterminated, many forests were cut down, many million hectares of soil were damaged, etc.
The contradictions between management and nature, as a result of its predatory exploitation, begin to intensify.
In the modern period of the scientific and information society human influence on nature has become global. People have mastered new types of energy (including nuclear), created a huge amount of new materials and genetically modified organisms. The volume of mining and environmental pollution has become colossal. At the moment, humanity is faced with a gradual climate change, which can entail very serious problems. The growth of negative impact on nature has increased so much that the attitude towards nature is gradually changing. Environmental awareness is being formed, measures are being taken to preserve nature (systems of reserves have emerged, emission standards are being introduced, etc.).
2. DEVELOPMENT OF IDEAS ABOUT THE ROLE OF A NATURAL FACTOR
Early ideas
Antiquity. The image of nature has always been the most important in the spiritual life of society. However, the comprehension of these relationships at the philosophical and theoretical level arose relatively late. Nevertheless, in some ancient oriental thinkers, and especially in ancient philosophers and historians, one can find interesting observations about the role of the geographical environment. Since historiography played an important role in ancient societies (see: Grinin 2010: Lecture 2), and the rudiments of political science, political economy and social philosophy appeared, it becomes clear why ancient authors touched on the problem of the conditionality of social phenomena by the geographic environment. Among the ancient writers, it is especially worth highlighting Aristotle (384–322 BC), Polybius (200–120 BC), Posidonius (c. 135 - c. 51 BC). AD), as well as the geographer Strabo (64/63 BC - 23/24 AD), the physician Hippocrates (460-370 BC) and the architect Vitruvius (I B.C.). Ancient authors noted the influence of the environment and especially the climate on the physical type of peoples, their customs and mores, the level of development of society and its political forms, occupations, and population. At the same time, the nature of Greece and the Mediterranean was considered the most favorable for the life of people. A number of ideas of ancient authors, especially those concerning the influence of climate on the character of the population and its customs, were developed in modern times by J. Boden and C. Montesquieu.
In the Middle Ages the role of the geographic environment has received very little influence due to the dominance of the theology of history. The only exceptions were, perhaps Ibn Khaldun(1332-1406), an eminent Arab historian and sociologist, and some Chinese authors. Ibn Khaldun explained the differences in life, everyday life, mental makeup, character and customs of certain tribes and peoples by differences in the natural, mainly climatic, conditions of their existence.
Return to the problems of the role of the geographic environment. Only work Jean Boden(1530-1596) "Six books about the state" introduced the question of the role of the geographical factor in the arsenal of the theory of history, although this question became really important for the theory of history only during the 18th – 20th centuries. In the views of Boden, like his ancient predecessors, there is much that is naive and incorrect. But it is important that for the first time he considered the issue of the influence of nature on society in sufficient detail and systematically, expressing the following ideas, which were later developed by Montesquieu:
1. The conditionality of the mental make-up of a people by a set of natural-geographical conditions in which this people develops. Boden, in particular, noted the dependence of the temperament of the people on latitude and longitude. Boden divides peoples into northern, southern and those living in the middle lane, he prefers the mental makeup of the latter.
He also notes (which the ancient authors did not have) the influence of longitude, emphasizes such climate features as more or less humidity, proximity to the sea.
2. Dependence of laws and institutions on climate. Boden believed that the temperament of a people influences legislation and customs. Thus, legislation is highly dependent on geographic conditions, since different natures require different socio-political institutions.
3. Features of the influence of natural conditions on a particular people, according to Boden, can be weakened or eliminated by social factors, as well as human will and education. Thus, Boden does not act as an absolute determinist.
The development of views in the xviii century.
The ideas of the enlighteners. J. J. Rousseau, A. Turgot, C. Montesquieu. The thinkers of the 17th century, being busy looking for general social laws, similar to the laws of physics and geometry, did not leave detailed theories about the influence of the geographic environment. But the philosophers of the Enlightenment in France and in other countries, studying human nature, began to pay more attention to the role of climate and nature in the life of society. This was also facilitated by the fact that during the great geographical discoveries a huge amount of various facts associated with such influence. In particular, J.J. Rousseau (1712–1778) developed the theory of a natural man (savage) who lives in harmony with nature, believing that civilization in the future has a detrimental effect on human society. Considerable attention was paid to the question of the role of climate, soil, natural communications, etc., those enlighteners who studied the historical stages of the development of the economy and material arts (crafts), progress and other problems. It is also worth remembering that in the 18th century. theories of the stages of economic development of mankind also appear: from hunting and gathering to shepherding, from it to agriculture, and from the latter to trade and industry (see: Grinin 2010: Lecture 8). The authors of these theories, naturally, could not ignore the role of the natural factor in the transition from stage to stage. In particular, AR Turgot (1727-1781) in his work "Reflections on the creation and distribution of wealth" comes to the important conclusion that the historical forms and scales of social organization are determined by the prevailing methods of obtaining means of subsistence. Hunters and gatherers live in small groups as they need large territory... The pastoral peoples, having received a more generous source of food, have a larger population than hunters and a higher level of development of society. Agriculture makes it possible to feed an even larger population, as a result of which cities and crafts appear, etc. But although Turgot noted a certain influence of natural-geographical conditions on the development of society, he did not share the views about their decisive influence.
The most famous study of the relationship between geographic and socio-political factors, in fact, theory of geographic determinism, gave Charles Montesquieu(1689-1755) in the essay "On the Spirit of Laws."
The most important idea of Montesquieu - natural factors determine the form of government and laws... The list of important factors that shape the character of the people and the state, he now includes soils, landscape, the size of the territory, etc. Hot climate and high soil fertility, according to Montesquieu, contribute to the development of laziness, which in turn leads to the formation of despotism as a form of government ... Infertile soil and temperate climate shape the desire for freedom. The philosopher is right in pointing out some obvious interconnections and correlations (correlations), for example, between the size of society and the form of government. In fact, the republic is more likely to take shape on a small territory, and despotism on a large one, than vice versa. But the forms of government are changing faster than natural conditions (in the 19th century, republics were formed in large states), which means that the theory requires a change.
The main flaw in Montesquieu's theory. Montesquieu's brilliant form of presentation and his broad erudition ensured a great interest in his ideas. However, the lack of historical facts, as well as the nihilistic attitude towards them characteristic of the enlighteners, clearly showed the limited possibilities of using the Montesquieu method. Its main drawback (like that of its predecessors and some later adherents of the idea of the geographical factor) was attempts to find direct (and invariant) forms of the impact of nature (climate, territory) on society and people.
To overcome this drawback, it was necessary to see the mechanisms through which nature influenced social institutions, as well as how, when a higher level of material life and production was achieved, previous restrictions and factors were removed, new aspects of the geographical factor began to influence, how new systemic factors were established. the relationship between the geographic environment and society.
To a certain extent, A. Barnav advanced in this direction, however, unfortunately, his ideas remained unknown to his contemporaries.
A. Barnav(1761-1793). Montesquieu's ideas were actively discussed and reasonedly criticized, and the problem he raised was developed in the works of some philosophers. Among them was, in particular, Barnave - one of the most interesting and profound French philosophers of the age of the Enlightenment. He developed, in today's language, the theory of factors of historical development. He was looking for reasons, the combined action of which is the "nature of things", which are in a certain relationship with each other, but act and interact differently. The foremost among such factors, in his opinion, is the geographic environment, which has both direct and indirect influence on all other factors. However, in comparison with Montesquieu, Barnave made a step forward, because, unlike him, he believed that the influence of the geographical environment on people's life is manifested mainly not through the psyche, but through their economic activities, determining the specific material conditions of this activity and the direction of social development. Anticipating the ideas of T. Bockle, he pointed out that soils are one of the main causes of changes in the nature of society, including due to the peculiarities of the distribution of wealth. An important conclusion of Barnava was that the impact of the geographic environment on the economic and political system is passive (and to a certain extent indirect), while the dominant type of economic activity actively and directly forms the type of distribution of the main social wealth. He notes that the geographic environment can accelerate or slow down the transition to a new level of development, in particular from the agricultural to the industrial stage of development. According to Ilyushechkin (1996), A. Barnava's views can be called geographic-economic materialism.
Development of views in the first half of the 19th century.
Geographic factor among other factors of the historical process. In the XIX century. from the search for the unchanging foundations of human nature, philosophers and philosophizing historians moved on to the search for the historical roots of contemporary phenomena, the reasons that contribute to the organic (and systemic) development of society (see for more details: Grinin 2010: Lecture 9). Among various factors (such as the "spirit of the people", the development of law, class and racial struggle, forms of property, economic and demographic development, great personalities), geographic factor... One of the main tasks of the researchers was to explain why, under the same natural conditions, different peoples (as well as the same people in different eras) demonstrate different successes and forms of socio-political life.
Geographic determinism. Historical and geographical school in Germany made a great contribution to the analysis of the role of the geographic environment, but it was dominated by geographical determinism, that is, the desire to explain all the features of society by geography... The views of geographical determinism were presented by the French eclectic philosopher Victor Cousin (1792–1867), himself not related to the geographical school, as follows: “Give me a map of the country, its outlines, climate, waters, winds — all of its physical geography; give me its natural fruits, flora, zoology, and I undertake to say in advance what the person of this country is, what role this country will play in history, and not by chance, but out of necessity, and not in one era, but in all epochs. " ...
Karl Ritter(1779-1859), one of the founders of modern geography, was the largest representative of the historical and geographical school. In its critical work"Geography in relation to nature and to the history of people, or general comparative geography" he examines the problem of the influence of geographical conditions on the history of mankind. Ritter's strength lay in the fact that he was a professional geographer, brilliantly aware of the peculiarities of each region of the Earth, the weakness in the fact that he was not sufficiently familiar with history.
The main ideas of K. Ritter:
1. Pre-established harmony between nature and the people inhabiting the area. According to Ritter, the geographical features of a certain area exactly coincide in their influence on a person with the characteristics of the people who should inhabit the area. In other words, every nation develops according to the divine design. Here Ritter grasped the fact that when living for a long time in a certain territory, people very closely adapt to nature, in particular, they bring up and cultivate those qualities of character that are best suited to the environment. But, of course, we should not talk about pre-established harmony, but about adaptation, which always - both in the animal and in the human world - amazes with its correspondence.
2. The uniqueness of each nation depends on the characteristics of the geographic environment where it lives. As a result of the diversity of the geographic environment, each people has certain specific conditions and institutions inherent in it alone.
3. The need for slow change. Since the geographical environment changes extremely slowly, the history of peoples is determined by the same basic factors. The slowness and gradualness of changes in the geographical situation, according to Ritter, should serve as the basis for the slowness and gradualness of historical development.
4. The idea of close interaction between nature and culture, the interconnectedness of all the elements that form a historically specific geographic area.
Dignity. If the predecessors in this area (Boden, Montesquieu, etc.) very primitively considered the direct influence of climate and relief (heat or cold, mountainous or flat terrain) on the character of a particular people, then Ritter analyzes the entire set of geographical conditions and often speaks of hidden or indirect than direct influence. This approach was undoubtedly an important step forward. He was characterized by reliance on numerous facts, consistency in the study of certain individual aspects.
Flaws. Ritter sought to discover constant, unchanging factors, on the basis of which it would be possible to prove the need to avoid any serious changes in society (this approach was generally characteristic of the historical school in Germany). Ritter, like other representatives of the geographical school, underestimated the results of cultural diffusion and mutual influence of different societies and peoples. Often the impact of the natural environment was presented in such a way as if this or that people lived in isolation as a culturally independent unit (see for more details: Kosminsky 1963). If Ritter considered the Earth as a single organism, then instead of a single humanity he saw separate peoples, the uniqueness of which is predetermined by the peculiarities of the geography of their habitat. The tendency to rely in explanations on mystical ideas is one of the significant disadvantages.
Ritter's ideas influenced the formation of a new direction in social thought - geopolitics.
Development of views in the second half of the 19th century.
Geographical determinism, especially in the Ritter version, naturally, could not satisfy social science for a long time, since the unscientificness and falsity of such a view became more and more obvious. As Ritter's student E. Reclus wrote (1995: 221), “the naive belief in a benevolent nature that protects us in our lives” was destroyed and replaced by more productive views. By the middle of the XIX century. it was confirmed or found out anew that nature strongly (if not fatally) influences the political and military structure of societies; geographical location can hinder or encourage war, trade, and other contacts; the natural environment influences production, forms of ownership, religion, etc. One of the main achievements was the position that the natural factor can colossally slow down or accelerate development. It was further important to see the specific forms of influence of the geographic environment on different societies, to understand the mechanisms of such influence, since nature does not directly affect relations. One of the most important tasks was to find out the optimal limits of the influence of the geographic environment, to combine geographic and production (as well as demographic) factors into a single concept. The latter task is still relevant today.
Henry Buckle(1821-1862) all his life he was preparing to write the history of world civilization, but he managed to write only two volumes of the History of Civilization in England. The first and second chapters of this work are of particular interest. In them, he outlines the problems of influence on the organization of society and the characters of people of factors such as climate, food, soil, etc. Like the educators of the 18th century. and representatives of the geographical school, Buckle strove in one way or another to directly connect the geographical environment with morals, religion, legislation, and forms of government.
But he also has new ideas, which ensured a long life for his work and were developed, in particular, by L.I. Mechnikov and F. Ratzel:
1. Wealth as a result of interaction between nature and society. Bockle took a step forward to find mechanisms for the indirect influence of the geographic environment on social life society. According to Bockl, "soil fertility" determines the possibility of accumulating wealth in society (by wealth, he actually means the volume of the product produced). The accumulation of wealth is in many respects the most important consequence of natural influence, since it determines the possibilities of population growth, exchange, forms of ownership and distribution in society, division of labor, growth of knowledge, which ultimately leads to the development of civilization.
2. Buckle begins to see that the degree of influence of the geographic environment is not constant, but depends on the level of development of society... In particular, he notes that among less civilized peoples the increase in "wealth" comes mainly from external natural forces ("soil fertility"), and in more civilized nations - from rational activity leading to the accumulation of knowledge. The first increment has a limit, the second has no such limit, which removes restrictions on further accelerated development. Buckle concludes: if earlier the richest countries were those whose nature was the most abundant, now the richest countries have become the countries in which a person is most active.
3. Uneven development of societies. Buckle quite logically explains some of the reasons for the uneven development of civilizations by the difference in wealth, population and culture, resulting from soil fertility and geographical features.
Lev Ilyich Mechnikov(1838–1888) in his work “Civilization and the Great Historical Rivers”, like his associate E. Reclus (1830–1905), tried to: a) get away from what they called geographical fatalism; b) to identify such forms of interaction between nature and society, which would explain the progressive course of human development.
Philosophical and historical concept of L. I. Mechnikov. humanity goes through the following stages in its development, associated with its relationship to the most important aspect of the geographical environment - water: first, people move on to the development of great rivers, irrigation; then the river period is replaced by the sea, but people develop only the inland (Mediterranean) seas. The third period - oceanic - begins with the period of great geographical discoveries. Although such a picture does not reflect the diversity of the existence of human societies, it reflects one of the most important lines of the historical process.
Mechnikov's new approaches:
1. Drawing attention to the study of an insufficiently studied aspect of the geographic environment- large rivers, on the banks of which the first civilizations arose. Pointing to the role of the great rivers - the Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, the Yellow River and the Yangtze, the Indus and the Ganges - in the transition from barbarism to civilization, Mechnikov showed an important milestone in the development of mankind and its individual societies, in fact, a kind of regular recurrence in the history of individual peoples.
2. The theory of the historical process is based not on the unchanging, but on the changing role of the geographic environment. The historical value of natural conditions changes over the centuries and at different stages of civilization. A person is gradually freed from the absolute power of the environment, and as he develops, many natural conditions, previously useless or even harmful, begin to be used. This was an important step forward in the development of the theory of the role of the geographic environment.
3. Geographic environment as a catalyst or a brake on development. Mechnikov developed the important idea that a natural factor can colossally slow down or accelerate development.
4. The way of interaction between the environment and society can be different. According to L.I. Mechnikov, the nature of civilization depends on the form of adaptation to environmental conditions, which is practiced by a given people.
5. The geographic environment primarily exerts an indirect influence "through labor and the nature of adaptation to nature."
Disadvantages of the approach Mechnikov, however, it was quite forgivable: a) the exaggeration of the role of cooperation in the process of mastering the natural environment and the underestimation of the importance of conquests and conflicts; b) a lack of understanding that the transition to civilizations required special natural conditions, without which neither labor nor cooperation could give an effect; c) failure to take into account the fact that in preindustrial societies, the environment often posed absolute barriers to development for many peoples.
Marxist school did not make too much of a contribution to the development of the theory of the geographical environment. In addition to Marx (see below), it would be worth highlighting only G.V. Plekhanov (1856-1918), who, in particular, in his work « On the development of a monistic view of history ”(1895) pointed to the special role of the geographic environment (albeit in a rather general form) in the development of hunter-gatherer societies, in their transition to agriculture and cattle breeding, as well as in influencing the fate of states. Plekhanov also explains the differences in the level of development of different societies by the natural factor. “The difference in the results (stages of cultural development) achieved by different human societies is explained precisely by the fact that the surrounding conditions did not allow different human tribes to equally use their ability to“ invent ”in business” (Plekhanov 1956: 614). (Note that this explanation, although partly fair, is still one-sided.)
Marxists recognized the importance of the natural environment, but believed that its role lies only in the fact that it can slow down or accelerate the development of society. This position stemmed from the fact that the main factors of development according to Marxism are internal, in particular the struggle of classes and revolution. And since the natural environment is an external factor, although its role may be significant, as a rule, it is not decisive for society. In fact, this played down the role of the geographic environment for preindustrial societies, for which the natural environment acted as a formative force. An important merit of Marxism: it embraced the idea that the role of the geographic environment changes with the development of society. For example, G.V. Plekhanov wrote: “The relationship between a social person and a geographic environment is extremely changeable. It changes with each new step achieved by the development of man's productive forces. As a result, the influence of the geographic environment on a social person leads to different results in different phases of the development of these forces ”(cited from: Anuchin 1982: 38).
It should be noted, however, that Marx made a significant contribution to the development of the question of the influence of nature on the form of society and social relations. He indicated the most important channel of their interaction through the inclusion of a part of the natural environment ( subject of labor) in the composition of the productive forces (which also include the means / instruments of labor). Subject of labor Are those natural objects to which labor is directed (cultivated soil, deposits, exploited forests, etc.). Unfortunately, in this aspect, this idea did not develop until recently, but in the 1960s – 1970s. many Marxist scholars have even come forward with a proposal not to consider the subject of labor as part of the productive forces, since this allegedly leads to concessions to geographical determinism (see: Socialism ... 1975: 40–41).
The influence of geographical theories on the development of historical science in the 19th century. The general ideas that took place in the development of historiography throughout the 19th century were associated with the aspirations: a) to put into circulation the greatest number of facts and find ways to verify them; b) focus primarily on national histories; c) find key aspects of the theory that would help explain the features national history(national spirit), the current state of society and its institutions (see for more details: Grinin 2010: Lecture 9). Therefore, many historians assigned a large place to the analysis of the role of the natural environment, since they saw in the peculiarities of the geography of their country one of the keys to understanding the “spirit” of its people and the main intrigue of its history. In particular, Russian historians (A.P. Shchapov, S.M. Soloviev, V.O. the concept of the struggle between the "forest" (that is, the Russian lands) and the "steppe" (nomads) and the influence of this on the entire Russian history.
Changing the direction of research in last third XIX - early XX centuries.
During this period, there were significant changes in the methods and approaches of philosophy, ethnography, history and other social disciplines in connection with the great success of the natural sciences. Among the most important points, we note the growth of advances in biology and the spread of the method of analogy between society (social organism) and biological organism. One of the first such method was applied by the outstanding English philosopher Henry Spencer(1820-1903). It became clear that society as an organism, firstly, constantly adapts to the environment and its changes, and this external influence makes society evolve and change. Together with the works of G. Spencer (but especially with "The Origin of Species by natural selection"Charles Darwin), the idea of" natural "social selection as a factor of social evolution also appeared. It consisted in the fact that in the process of adaptation to natural conditions and as a result of the struggle for resources, etc., the most adapted societies survive, and the unadapted ones are destroyed or perish. As a result, there is not only a selection of forms capable of development, but social progress in general. In many ways - especially for the early periods of history - this is true and helps to explain both the causes and directions of social development (see in more detail: Grinin 2007; Grinin, Korotaev 2009: ch. 1). However, the ideas of the survival of the most adapted societies and social groups began to be illegally transferred to the modern struggle of classes and states (so-called social Darwinism arose, which was used to justify the inequality of peoples and races, as well as social exploitation). The ideas of natural selection among states and the analogy of society (state) with an organism influenced the emergence of new science- geopolitics, which also combined interesting and fruitful approaches with reactionary conclusions.
Ratzel and the beginning of geopolitics. German scientist and traveler Friedrich Ratzel(1844-1904) was one of the founders of political geography. He continued to develop the ideas of the geographical school about the influence of the environment on the forms and characteristics of socio-political organization. In his not unfounded opinion, for example, natural boundaries (mountains, sea) contribute to the emergence of isolated social groups with underdeveloped political power, and the plains - to centralization and strong power to protect against the raids of nomads, later turning into a large socially and culturally integrated state organization.
F. Ratzel's main ideas:
1. Consideration of states as social organisms, which operate under selection conditions. The survival of states (nations or cultures) is associated with their ability to expand and improve their geographical position. The growth of states contributes to the differentiation of the world into strong (viable) and weak countries.
2. The analysis of the problem of the spatial location of states and the influence of geographical location on the political status of the state was innovative.
3. Consideration of borders as peripheral organs of the state. Ratzel studied the geographical transition zones where land and sea meet, and revealed their influence on the formation and structure of states.
Flaws. Passion for the method of analogy inevitably led to strains and biologic speculations, especially when explaining the spatial expansion or contraction of states. Ratzel's works laid the foundations for a new science - geopolitics (among the classics of which one can mention R. Kjellen, K. Witfogel, K. Haushofer, H. Mackinder, etc.).
3. MODERN RESEARCH (XX - early XXI century)
The challenge of nature and the response of society. Arnold Toynbee(1889-1975), one of the most famous philosophers of the history of the twentieth century, became famous for his theory of civilizations, set forth in the 12-volume work "Comprehension of History". Toynbee did not deal specifically with the problems of geographic analysis, but he has methodological approaches that may be useful for this problem as well. In particular, this refers to his idea, formulated briefly: "challenge - response." From time to time, society faces difficult problems (“challenge”) that need to be resolved in one way or another (given an “answer”). The whole future fate of society (people, civilization) often depends on the nature of the answer. But the nature of the answer is not predetermined, it largely depends on the characteristics of society and sometimes on the characteristics of a particular moment.
Karl Witfogel(1896-1988) became famous for the book "Eastern Despotism" (1957). In this work, Vitfogel comes to the conclusion that the economic and geographical conditions of the ancient irrigation societies (Egypt, Babylon, China, India, Mexico, Peru) determined the development of despotism and the absence of private property in them. Despotism stemmed from the need to organize large masses of people for irrigation (construction of dams, dams, canals, etc.) and agricultural work in order to obtain high yields. Vitfogel distinguishes three main types of despotism. The first consists of the political regimes of the ancient "hydraulic societies" of Egypt, Babylon, China, India, Mexico, Peru, etc., which have the most pronounced signs of despotism. Despotism of the second type is formed in states where agriculture is not conditioned by artificial irrigation. The state builds roads, collects taxes and maintains public order. Byzantium is a classic example. Despotism of the third kind - societies like Tsarist Russia and Sultan Turkey. The functions of the state are limited in them to the collection of taxes and organizational activities. This K. Vitfogel considers the minimum necessary to maintain despotism.
Study of the "society - nature" system and the channels of interaction between them. In domestic science in the 1970-1980s. there were ideas about the inclusion of a part of the geographic environment in the composition of the productive forces. They were later developed into a more coherent theory based on the concept natural production basis of society(see for more details: Grinin 1997: 42–78; 2006: 21–26). The fact is that in the structure of production of preindustrial societies big role natural elements played, for example, energy sources (fire, solar heat, wind energy) and natural communications (rivers, seas), which constitute, as it were, the “lower floor” of the productive forces, or their natural level (see diagram 2).
This approach makes it possible to better take into account the capabilities of pre-industrial societies (which are often belittled) and to make comparisons between societies of the past and the present. On the other hand, the poorer nature is, the more the technical and technological part of the productive forces must be developed in order to compensate for this scarcity. The idea of the natural-production basis of society, thus, allows one to take into account both the close relationship of the productive forces and the natural environment, and the mobility of the role of each of them in the life of society, depending on the era, the characteristics of nature and cultural interaction.
Other directions of research in the twentieth century.(only a few are indicated):
1. Global forecasts related to the analysis of natural resource scarcity and global problems. The most famous are the reports to the Club of Rome in the 1960s – 1980s. (D.H. Meadows, D.L. Meadows, E. Pestel, M. Mesarovich, et al.), Dedicated to the limits of the extensive growth of humanity due to limited resources (see: Meadows et al. 1991; 1999; Tinbergen 1980; Pestel 1988; Mesarović, Pestel 1974; see also: Peccei 1984; 1985). In general, the general idea can be expressed in the words of A. Peccei: "Man ... imagined himself the undivided master of the Earth and immediately began to exploit it, neglecting the fact that its size and physical resources are quite finite" (Peccei 1985: 295).
2. Attempts to find new aspects of the direct impact of nature on society were not successful. The most famous in this regard are the theories of the physicist A.L. Chizhevsky (1897-1964), who linked the rise of social activity and cataclysms (wars, revolutions, epidemics) with 11-year peaks of solar activity, and the historian L.N. Gumilyov (1912 –1992), who suggested that the birth and activity of ethnic groups (peoples) in a certain place and at a certain time are associated with the action of the obscure nature of the cosmic factor influencing the emergence of a special socio-psychological energy ( passionarity). This hypothesis does not carry the necessary heuristic principle. The idea that the lifespan of any ethnic group is 1,500 years, that each ethnic group goes through the same phases of life, is also quite far-fetched. However, the general idea of Gumilyov that the nature of ethnic groups (especially in the pre-industrial period) is very closely related to the peculiarities of the climate and landscape of the territory where he appeared and lived is not without foundation.
3. Research of transformations of societies in connection with changes in natural conditions, including various reactions of societies (for example, nomadic ones) to the drying up and humidification of the steppes, agricultural civilizations - to cooling and warming, primitive societies - to changes in flora and fauna as a result of glaciers and warming.
4. Study of the dynamics of climate change and other natural aspects(soils, seas, coasts, etc.) for long periods of time; as well as the impact on society of disasters and other negative factors (for example, epidemics). Two very famous works in this direction are "The History of Climate Since 1000" by E. Le Roy Ladurie and "Epidemics and Peoples" by W. McNeill.
5. Investigation of the role of the natural factor in the process of epoch-making evolutionary changes, for example, the agrarian revolution (G. Child, J. Mellart, V. A. Shnirelman), the origin of states (R. Carneiro), etc.
6. The influence of the natural factor on the features of the formation and development of various civilizations, as well as the eastern and western paths of development of world history.
7. Connection of natural conditions with demographic processes.
There are a number of other areas of research into the history of interaction between society and the natural environment. However, despite this, this problem has not yet been studied enough.
Anuchin, V.A. 1982. Geographic factor in the development of society. M .: Thought.
Grinin, L. E.
1997. Formations and Civilizations. Philosophy and Society 3: 42–78.
2006. Productive forces and the historical process. M .: KomKniga.
2011. From Confucius to Comte. Formation of the theory of methodology and philosophy of history. M .: URSS. In the press.
Ilyushechkin, V.P. 1996.The theory of staged development of society: History and problems. Ch. 1. M .: Vost. liter.
Isaev, B. A. 2006. Geopolitics: study. manual. SPb .: Peter.
Mukitanov, N.K. 1985. From Strabo to the present day. Evolution of geographical concepts and ideas. M .: Thought.
Society and nature: historical stages and forms of interaction / otv. ed. M. P. Kim. Moscow: Nauka, 1981.
Rozanov, I. A. 1986. Great catastrophes in the history of the Earth... M .: Science.
Smolensky, N.I. 2007. Theory and methodology of history... ch. 8.3. M .: Academy.
McNeill, W. H. 1993. Plagues and Peoples. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Monticello.
Wittfogel, K. A. 1957. Oriental despotism... New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Further reading and sources
Aron, R. 1993. Stages of development of sociological thought/ per. with fr. M .: Progress-Univers.
Barnav, A. 1923. Introduction to the French Revolution. Reader on French materialism. T. 2. (p. 187-212). Pg.
Barulin, V.S. 199. Social philosophy ... Ch. 2. Ch. XI. M .: publishing house of Moscow State University.
Boden, J. 2000. The method of easy knowledge of history. M .: Science.
Bockle, G. 2007. History of civilizations. History of Civilization in England. M .: Direct-Media.
Geopolitics and geostrategists: reader: at 5 o'clock / ed. B. A. Isaeva. SPb .: Balt. state tech. un-t, 2003-2004.
Hippocrates. 1994. About air, waters and localities. In: Hippocrates, Selected books. M .: Svarog.
Grinin, L. E., Markov, A. A., Korotaev, A. V. 2008. Macroevolution in wildlife and society... M .: LKI / URSS.
Gumilev, L. N. 1993. Ethnogenesis and the Earth's biosphere... M .: Michelle.
Zubov, A. A. 1963. Man populates his planet. M .: Geography.
Kosminsky, E.A. 1963. Historiography of the Middle Ages: V century. - the middle of the XIX century. M .: Moscow State University.
Le Roy Ladurie, E. 1971. Climate history since 1000... M .: Hydrometeorological publishing house.
Meadows, D.H., Meadows, D.A., Randers, J., Behrens, S.W. 1991. Growth limits... M .: Moscow State University.
Meadows, D.H., Meadows, D.L., Randers, J. 1999. Beyond the Permissible: Global Catastrophe or Stable Future? New post-industrial wave in the West/ ed. V. L. Inozemtseva (pp. 572–595). M .: Academia.
Mellart, J. 1982. The oldest civilizations in the Middle East. M .: Science.
Mechnikov, L. I. 1995... Civilizations and great historical rivers. M .: Progress.
Montesquieu, C. L. 1999. On the spirit of laws... M .: Thought.
Pestel, E. 1988. Beyond growth. M .: Progress.
Pecchei, A.
1984. One Hundred Pages for the Future. The future is in the present: Sat. / per. from English M.
1985. Human qualities... M .: Progress.
Plekhanov, G.V.
1956. On the development of a monistic view of history. In: Plekhanov, G.V., Selected philosophical works: in 5 volumes. V. 1 (p. 507-730). M .: Gospolitizdat.
Nature and the development of a primitive society / ed. I.P. Gerasimova. Moscow: Nauka, 1969.
Roman club. History of creation, selected reports and speeches, official materials / ed. D. M. Gvishiani. M .: URSS, 1997.
Strabo. 1994. Geography/ per. from Old Greek G. A. Stratanovsky, ed. O. O. Kruger, total. ed. S. L. Utchenko. M .: Ladomir.
Tinbergen, J. 1980. Revision of the international order/ per. from English M .: Progress.
Turaev, V.A. 2001. Global problems modernity. M .: Logos.
Turgot, A. R. Zh. 1961. Reflections on the Creation and Distribution of Wealth. In: Turgot, A.R.J., Selected economic works. M .: Sotsekgiz.
Bell, D. 1979. The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism... New York: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers.
Klimenko, V. V., Tereshin, A. G. 2010. World Energy and Climate in the Twenty-first Century in the Context of Historical Trends: Clear Constraints to the Future Growth. Journal of Globalization Studies, Vol. 1.No. 2, November: 30–43.
Mesarović, M. D., Pestel, E. 1974. Mankind at the Turning Point: The Second Report to the Club of Rome... Laxenburg: IIASA.
The rest of the used literature
Velichko, A.A. 1989. Correlation of climate changes in high and low latitudes of the Earth in the late Pleistocene and Holocene. Paleoclimates and glaciations in the Pleistocene/ ed. A. A. Velichko, E. E. Gurtovoy, M. A. Faustova, p. 5-19. M .: Science.
Gulyaev, V.I. 1972. The most ancient civilizations of Mesoamerica. M .: Science.
Grinin, L. E.
2007. The problem of analyzing the driving forces of historical development, social progress and social evolution. In: Semenov, Yu.I., Gobozov, I.A., Grinin, L.E., Philosophy of History: Problems and Prospects(p. 183–203). M .: KomKniga; URSS.
2010. Theory, methodology and philosophy of history: essays on the development of historical thought from antiquity to the middle of the 19th century. Lectures 1-9. Philosophy and Society 1: 167–203; 2: 151–192; 3: 162–199; 4: 145–197.
Grinin, L. E., Korotaev, A. V. 2009. Social macroevolution. Genesis and transformations of the World-System... M .: LIBROKOM.
Evteev, S. A., Flight, R. A. (ed.) 1989. Our common future. Report of the International Commission on Environment and Development. M .: Progress.
Leonova, N.B., Nesmeyanov, S.A. (ed.) 1993. Paleoecology problems of ancient societies. Moscow: Russian Open University.
Markov, G.E. 1979. The history of the economy and primitive culture in the primitive communal and early class society. M .: Publishing house of Moscow University.
Podolny, R. 1977. Children of the Earth. M .: Thought.
Reclus, E. 1995. Preface to the book: Mechnikov, L. I. Civilization and the great historical rivers. Moscow: Progress, 1995.
Salins, M.D. 1999. Stone Age economics... M .: OGI.
Socialism: dialectics of productive forces and production relations / ed. V.G. Marakhova. M .: Thought, 1975.
Child, G. 1949. Progress and archeology... M .: State. publishing house in. lit-ry.
In many respects (the wealth of mineral resources and soil, the convenience of the conditions for laying communications), the dependence of the economy on nature continues to be very strong today. Incidentally, the countries with the largest population (China, India, Bangladesh, etc.) are precisely those states where intensive farming on fertile soils has long emerged.
In historical science, to denote the nature surrounding society, the concept is traditionally used geographic environment, and to denote the influence of nature on society - geographic factor... Therefore, in this lecture we will use the concepts of "natural environment" and "geographic environment", "natural factor" and "geographic factor" as synonyms (although in principle the concept of the natural environment / factor is broader than the geographic environment / factor).
The concept of "reserve of the geographic environment" facilitates the analysis of society's capabilities, incentives and barriers to its development, and a number of other problems. Thus, a huge reserve of land in the United States allowed the formation of the American way of developing agriculture, which created an unprecedented basis for a powerful rise in the most modern industry. If the mode of production has already become a brake on progress, then the presence of a reserve allows the ruling groups of a lagging country, who do not want to change anything, to retard its development. The same infinity of land in North America fueled slavery in the southern states until it was destroyed by force. The expansion of the land fund in Russia played the same role for the preservation of the noble serf ownership of land (see for more details: Grinin 1997: 63–64).
Just as the biological needs of people are met in an increasingly social way (for example, initially clothes were needed only to protect from the cold, then prestigious, fashionable clothes appear, for every occasion), the natural environment is increasingly being replaced by artificial ones. But just as it is impossible to nullify biological needs (and sometimes they very powerfully and rudely declare themselves), so it is impossible to nullify the role of the natural environment. Needless to say, the process of interaction between society and nature is continuous.
The artificial environment can both favor the development of the economy and relations, society as a whole, and slow it down, because often instead of the natural obstacles of society, others are created: social boundaries, customs, bans on resettlement, etc. external contacts in the XVIII-XIX centuries. China, Korea and Japan.
For example, with a sparse population, there may be a factor of excess land, and with a dense population, the factor of a shortage of land arises in the same territory, which leads to numerous social and technological changes (changes in land relations, including forms of personal dependence, for example, for rent arrears; in the methods of cultivating the land, the growth of market relations; the growth of social inequality, etc.).
Such channels can be cultivated land (soil) and deposits, some communications (river and sea, for example), which form the entire life of society. The location of water sources in irrigation societies also has a very strong impact. In industrial societies, the established network of communications largely determines the geography of the location of cities, etc. Much depends on the level of wealth and the so-called relatively surplus product, which arises, for example, under conditions of fertile soils (accordingly, under conditions of poor soils, such surplus product is produced much less ). The level of wealth in society, in turn, affects the distribution system and the structure of social stratification (in particular, a layer of land aristocracy and peasants, one way or another dependent on it, or a powerful state with a bureaucracy, to which land is distributed for service, may appear). In conditions of poorer soils, a military stratum more often arises, which receives land for military service. Different soil fertility has a tremendous effect on the density and size of the population, which, in turn, is reflected at the level of state organization. Much also depends on the convenience of contacts and the disposition of society in relation to its more or less close neighbors.
In this respect, the influence of humans is not very different from the influence of animal communities.
So, irrigation (domestication) can lead to soil salinization, deforestation - to a change in the water balance, abandonment of arable land - to the emergence of forests and climate change.
The maximum glaciation and cooling occurred approximately 20-17 thousand years ago, the temperature dropped on average by more than 5 degrees (see: Velichko 1989: 13-15).
Nevertheless, the dependence of a number of societies on nature was so great that cases are known when societies of farmers and pastoralists, under the influence of changed natural conditions, again returned to hunting and gathering. But on the whole, the “vector” of evolutionary selection turned out to be aimed not so much at the ability of societies to adapt to the natural environment, as at their ability to survive and thrive in a social environment, which implies the ability to compete with neighbors in the military, commercial, cultural or other spheres.
For example, the followers of A. Saint-Simon expressed the idea that the exploitation of man by man will be replaced by the only form of exploitation: man of nature.
When presenting this section of the lecture, naturally, one should take into account the course of development public ideas in the corresponding era, the main points of which until the middle of the XIX century. presented by me in the corresponding lectures (see: Grinin 2010: Lectures 1–9). In some places of this lecture I make the necessary references to them, in others - they are implied.
You can also mention Herodotus, Democritus, Plato, Lucretius Kara, Tacitus and others.
For example, he argues that cities that are built on flat ground are less prone to civil strife than cities that are built on hilly ground. That is why the history of Rome, which is built on seven hills, is so rich in internecine conflicts (see: Kosminsky 1963: 116-117).
But, of course, during this time, a number of researchers, especially in France and England, contributed to the development of J. Bodin's ideas, including in the aspect of interaction between the peculiarities of natural conditions and economic development. Especially worth mentioning is F. Bacon (1561–1626), W. Temple (1628–1699), B. de Fontenelle (1657–1757), J. B. Dubo (1670–1742).
As I. I. Smolensky rightly points out (2007: 114), it is not the very idea of the influence of climate on people's lives that is incontestable, but direct parallels between the climate and human life, like this: “the barren soil of Attica gave rise to popular rule there, and on the fertile soil of Lacedaemon, an aristocratic government arose, as being closer to the rule of one - a government that Greece did not expect at all in those days. " There is a grain of truth in this idea of Montesquieu, but how many places with barren soil that did not repeat the achievements of Attica? There were few places with fertile soil, but only a few places had a system corresponding to the Spartan heloty.
In particular, on the part of such enlighteners as F. M. Voltaire, K. A. Helvetius, J. Millar. The latter, for example, posed an important problem: why, under the same conditions, different peoples (or the same people) develop differently in different epochs?
In addition to the aforementioned enlighteners, a certain contribution to the development of ideas about the role of the natural factor was also made by D. Hume (1711–1776), IG Herder (1744–1803), J. Möser (1720–1794).
History of bourgeois sociology of the XIX - early XX century. - M .: Nauka, 1979 .-- P. 59.
One of Ritter's students and followers was the famous Russian traveler P.P.Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, who popularized Ritter's ideas in speeches in the Russian Geographical Society and in his publications.
Note that the importance of the differences between "sea" and "continental" civilizations was subsequently pointed out by a number of researchers, in particular J. Pirenne, the author of the seven-volume work "Great Currents world history"(1945-1957).
Regarding the role of the geographical environment, he wrote: “... we are by no means defenders of the theory of“ geographical fatalism, ”which proclaims, contrary to the facts, that a given set of physical and geographical conditions plays and should play the same invariable role everywhere. No, the point is only to establish the historical value of these conditions and the variability of this value over the centuries and at different stages of civilization ”(Mechnikov 1995: 323).
It was not without reason that Lenin believed that everything Plekhanov wrote about philosophy was the best in the entire international literature of Marxism. On the other hand, one should not forget that Soviet Marxists even reproached Plekhanov for exaggerating the role of the geographic environment.
The following approach can be considered quite indicative: “Historical materialism recognizes the great importance of the geographical environment for historical development ... However, historical materialism considers the geographical environment to be one of the conditions of historical development, but not its cause, and shows that the geographical environment does not directly affect the nature of society. , but indirectly, through the method of production of material goods, which determines the nature of this or that social system ”(Soviet Historical Encyclopedia: in 16 volumes - M., 1963. - T. 4. - P. 220). Behind these outwardly correct formulations, however, was hidden, first, the fact that the modes of production in Marxism were determined by the type of property, which actually made it impossible to study precapitalist societies on this basis; secondly, it was not taken into account that for precapitalist societies a number of natural objects (in particular, fauna, flora, land) were the most important part of the productive forces (see below). Consequently, the volume of the surplus product and the form of social institutions depended on the abundance or scarcity of the corresponding objects of nature. Buckle understood this, but Marxism found it difficult to accept this idea in theory. It follows from this that the geographic environment could very strongly (and even to a decisive extent) influence the forms of society and the direction of its development. Unfortunately, among Marxist scholars only sometimes ideas were expressed (which were practically never developed) that “the further we go into the depths of the centuries, the more important it is to take into account the geographical factor” (B. A. Rybakov. Quoted from: Podolny 1977: 122).
See: Kim, M.P. Natural and social in the historical process / M.P.Kim // Society and nature: historical stages and forms of interaction. - M., 1981. - S. 13; Danilova L.V. Natural and social factors of productive forces at precapitalist stages of social development / M. P. Kim // Society and nature: historical stages and forms of interaction. - M., 1981. - S. 119; Anuchin, V.A.Geographic factor in the development of society. - M., 1982 .-- S. 325.
Today, it is probably already possible to talk about the natural basis of global society.
It can even be assumed that in a number of societies of the past the volume of gross product per capita was very large and, perhaps, even higher than in a number of modern developing countries, if we also count the "work" of nature. For example, how many million tons of fertilizers did the Egyptians replace the silt of the great Nile? Indeed, to collect such crops today in Europe, colossal costs are needed. And who counted the "horsepower" of Indian elephants or the millions of tons of fuel saved by the wind in the sails and mills? Today, millions of tons of fish are caught in the ocean. How much energy and costs will future humanity need to grow this amount of fish artificially? In the American steppes back in the 19th century. there were tens of millions of bison. How many countries can boast of such a livestock of beef cattle? In some tribes of Alaska Indians, each family harvested up to a thousand salmon fish for the winter (translate to modern prices!). Thus, the huge difference in the structure and development of the productive forces should not overshadow the productivity of the economy, since the larger the population and the more depleted nature, the more you have to “work” for it. And in this regard, the ratio of production volumes between current and former societies will look different. If we realize this, then the basis of ancient societies will appear much more powerful (for more details see: Grinin 1997: 59–61).
In the figurative expression of D. Bell, we have grown to a new vocabulary, the key concept in which will be the limit. The limits of growth, plundering of the environment, interference in wildlife, weapon limit, etc. (Bell 1979: xxix). As you know, the International Commission on Environment and Development has formulated the concept of sustainable development, which includes two basic concepts: necessary needs and constraints (see, for example: Evteev, Perelet 1989: 50).
From lat. passio- passion. Passionarity, according to Gumilev, is characterized by special energy, readiness for heroism, less fear of danger and death, sacrifice, etc. Gumilev also investigated the process of the formation of peoples (ethnic groups), which he called ethnogenesis, and the phases of the life of the ethnos.
However, these problems: the reasons for the formation of new peoples, the rise and extinction of their activity, the reasons why some (few) peoples were able to leave a very bright mark in history, and many others did not, etc., are very interesting and important questions. There is no doubt that Gumilyov's work has intensified interest in them.
Considering the factors that can affect the positive development of enterprise management, we can name the following:
- motivation;
- management;
- employees;
- communications;
- consultations.
When introducing a new method, first of all, in addition to a clear goal, the motive must be clearly formulated. At the same time, it is necessary that the management at the enterprise sees in the new method a valid further, expected effect.
Motivation is primarily necessary for the implementation of a new method, which should improve the management of the enterprise, the financial condition and the ability to compete with enterprises that produce similar products.
The introduction of a new method, first of all, should be supervised by a manager who has more experience in this enterprise, while having authority and the ability to take full responsibility for the further result from the implementation.
The success of the introduction of new methods primarily depends on the understanding of the management and all personnel, how this method will affect the further fate of the enterprise, thereby understanding how to achieve the goals of the enterprise.
The ability and ability of an enterprise to go through various cataclysms, to be competitive, to maintain financial stability largely depends on the work of internal factors - on the state of the internal environment.
Internal factors include goals, objectives, structure, technology, and personnel of the enterprise. If we consider the statistics of enterprises in developed countries, then it can be noted that the bankruptcy of enterprises in general occurs due to internal factors. In a constant economy, the main obstacles that stand in the way of the development of the enterprise, as a rule, are located within it, and include internal disagreements aimed at achieving the goals, resources, as well as the necessary reorganization, which is aimed at achieving the goal.
One of the key factors of the internal environment of an enterprise that influences its development is personnel. At industrial enterprises, the history of which begins in the middle of the 19th century, the age contingent at the enterprise in the management structure starts from 22 to 70 years. Three types of managers can be distinguished:
- Young professionals who have recently graduated from higher educational institutions.
- Employees who have worked at the enterprise for more than 15 years, with a low level of motivation to improve their own qualifications, improve the quality of planning.
- Employees, otherwise known as "sharks", proactive and suggesting new methods for the development of the management of the enterprise.
Per last years the influence of external factors of the international level, the destabilizing directions of the activities of enterprises, is increasing. The influence of these factors is largely provided by a stable balance and stability of economic entities, which are aimed at raising the national economy.
Previously, the enterprise was studied as a closed production system, and did not take into account the impact of the external environment on its improvement. Scientific research in general was focused on the analysis and improvement of the internal environment of the enterprise. Today, in a market economy, industrial enterprises cannot but take into account the impact of the external environment. The external environment is able to influence the enterprise using objective and subjective factors. The work of each of these factors can be expressed in different ways on the quality of the enterprise.
Objective external factors are factors of direct influence. Further, we will consider the factors that can be attributed to this group.
A reserve of working resources is a chain consisting of material, labor, and financial resources that are needed for the full-fledged operation of the enterprise. Also, enterprises should have control and accounting for all used resources and those that are available in the warehouse.
People's resources are the labor force on which all production is based, bearing the character of the enterprise's labor resources. Labor potential in people is assessed as a combination of various properties that express their performance. These properties can be linked:
- with the physical capabilities of a person, his nervous system, his skills and working abilities;
- with the degree of his education, his knowledge that will allow him to perform this or that work for a certain qualification.
Financial resources are one of the most important types. Today, most enterprises feel a shortage of funds and, out of despair, attract borrowed funds with the help of loans. Based on this, it can be noted that banks have a huge impact on the development and the current existence of enterprises.
Consumers play an important role in the development of an enterprise, since they are the ones who make the enterprise well-being by defining its strategy.
Competitive enterprises also put pressure on the enterprise and an incentive for their own development, since they produce products that are analogous and, in terms of their quality characteristics, can be better and cheaper, and at the same time can provide staff with more profitable and favorable working conditions.
Legislation plays a huge role in the sphere of influence on the enterprise. There are three branches of government in the Russian Federation (legislative, executive and judicial). Local government bodies include control over the implementation of socio-economic relations in society. The main functions that can be attributed to the authorities are the adoption of laws and control over their implementation, the development and implementation of policies in the field of social and labor relations.
The enterprise reacts to changes in the factors of direct influence by changing the internal environment and pursuing a policy of modification, either active or passive counteraction.
Subjective external factors that can indirectly affect the development of the enterprise. Indirect factors are background factors that can play economic stability (increase or decrease). Subjective external factors - the state of the economy, natural or socio-economic factors.
Internal factors also include everything that affects the improvement of the enterprise, for example, production, strategic management system, finance, personnel and R&D.
Manufacturing is a process aimed at creating material goods, which is characterized by the use of equipment, technologies, as well as special skills among employees. The quality of the manufactured products directly depends on the equipment and on the methods of the applied technologies. Production is the key internal factor that determines the economic sustainability of an enterprise. Economic sustainability is ensured by the strategic management system.
Political factors:
- termination of contracts with foreign institutions that have assumed obligations to fulfill this contract for the supply of components for the construction of ships. Termination of foreign contracts affects the failure to meet the schedule or contract for specific products;
- position of Russia in the international market.
Economic forces:
- the cost of manufactured products increases due to the rise in prices for electricity and gas, which affects the decrease in profits;
- unprofitable import substitution;
- domestically produced services are more expensive than imported services;
- a decrease in the rate of economic growth of the country and manufacturing industries;
- instability of the economy;
- crisis of the credit and financial markets.
Social factors:
- staff turnover among highly qualified specialists. Talented workers find more attractive work in other enterprises for good wages and favorable working conditions;
- there is no middle link in the age segment of workers.
Technological factors:
- negative impact on the environment during production, which affects the need to improve equipment in order to minimize environmental pollution;
- much of the equipment is outdated, which affects the speed and quality of the product produced, as well as the delivery time.
- strategic management gives an enterprise the opportunity to improve the quality of management, to anticipate all possible negative influences of the external environment and to prepare a plan to eliminate them.
Financial planning at the enterprise affects the attraction of various investments, as well as the replenishment of funds, which are aimed at carrying out their permanent activities and developing the enterprise.
Research and development organization has a huge impact on the improvement of the enterprise, makes it possible for the enterprise to be able to meet the technologies of today, while improving its technologies and increasing competitiveness.
Bibliography:
- Emelyanova E.A. "Strategic management" [Economic Faculty] - Ed. 2nd, Tomsk, 2015, 112 p.
- Alekseev A.N. development of industrial potential in the context of import substitution: management and marketing technologies: materials of an international scientific and practical conference: monograph / S.Yu. Witte Moscow University, Moscow 2017. - 48 p.
- Rumyantseva E.E. Economic analysis: Textbook and workshop / E.E. Rumyantsev. - M .: Yurayt, 2017 .-- 381 p.
Supporters of the first of them adhering to the concept unilinearity of world history, believe that all countries and peoples, including Russia and the Russian nation, go through the same stages in their evolution, common for all, move along the same path, common to all. Specific features Russian history are interpreted by representatives of this School as a manifestation of the backwardness of Russia and the Russians. This point of view is characteristic, first of all, of the historical journalism of the Westernist, including the dogmatized-Marxist, direction.
Professional historians proceeding from the same methodological premise, as a rule, avoid using the concept of "backwardness" in relation to the history of Russia, preferring a different term - "Delay" in the movement of Russian history; accordingly, the center of research is transferred by them to identifying the reasons that slowed down the course of the historical evolution of Russia.
Supporters of the second approach to the study of Russian history proceed from the concept of multilinear historical development... They believe that the history of mankind consists of the histories of a number of distinctive civilizations, each of which mainly develops (developed) one (or a specific combination of several) aspects of human nature, evolves along its own path; one of these civilizations is the Russian (Slavic) civilization.
In domestic and foreign historiography, three main factors are usually distinguished, which determined the features (backwardness, delay, originality, originality) of Russian history:
1 ) natural and climatic;
2 ) geopolitical;
3 ) confessional (religious);
Natural and climatic factor:
Influence of the natural and climatic factor the specificity of Russian history was noted by almost all researchers of the originality of the Russian historical process. The last to stop on this problem L.V. Milov, who, in solving it, relied, perhaps, on the most solid factual basis. In his opinion, in central Russia, which formed the historical core of the Russian state (after its movement from Kiev to North-Eastern Russia), “with all the fluctuations in the climate, the cycle of agricultural work is only 125-130 working days (approximately from mid-April to mid-April September old style). For at least 400 years, the Russian peasant was in a situation where the thin soils required careful cultivation, and he simply did not have enough time for it, as well as for the preparation of feed for livestock ...
If external unity is characteristic of Catholicism("Power, domination, discipline"), then for Orthodoxy it is rather an internal unity: conciliarity understood as the involvement of the Orthodox in the common Absolute. Orthodoxy does not strive for direct secular power, concentrating its attention on the souls of people. The way of theological thinking is different in the West and in the East. “For, striving for the truth of speculation, Eastern thinkers care first of all about the correctness of the inner state of the thinking spirit; Western - more about the external connection of concepts. In order to achieve the fullness of truth, the Easterners seek the inner integrity of the mind: that, so to speak, the focus of mental forces, where all the individual activities of the spirit merge into one living and higher unity. Westerners, on the contrary, believe that the achievement of complete truth is possible for the divided forces of the mind ... They understand the moral with one sense; to others - graceful; useful - again with a special meaning; they understand the true with an abstract reason, and not one ability knows what the other is doing, as long as its action is completed. "
As a result of the fact that Russia and the West received Christianity through various intermediaries, the peculiarities of Christian upbringing were radically different from them: “theology in the West took on the character of rational abstraction - in the Orthodox world it retained the inner integrity of the spirit; there is a bifurcation of the forces of reason - here is the striving for their living aggregate; there is the movement of the mind to truth through the logical cohesion of concepts - here is the striving for it by means of an internal elevation of self-consciousness to the heart's wholeness and the focus of reason; there is a search for outer, dead unity - here is a striving for inner, living; there the church mingled with the state, combining spiritual power with secular and merging ecclesiastical and secular significance into one device of a mixed character - in Russia it remained not mixed with secular goals and structure; there scholastic and legal universities - in ancient Russia, prayer monasteries, which concentrated the highest knowledge; there is a rational and school study of higher truths - here is a striving for their living and integral cognition ... in a word, there is a bifurcation of the spirit, a bifurcation of thoughts, a bifurcation of sciences, a bifurcation of the state, a bifurcation of society, a bifurcation of family rights and responsibilities, a bifurcation of the moral and heart state, the bifurcation of the entire totality and all separate types of human existence, public and private; in Russia, on the contrary, the predominant striving for the wholeness of being internal and external, public and private, speculative and everyday, artificial and moral ... bifurcation and wholeness, rationality and rationality will be the last expression of Western European and Old Russian education. "
Without interfering directly with the affairs of secular power, Orthodoxy nevertheless had a decisive influence on the Russian political tradition. Investigating this issue I.N. Ionov notes that one “of the central concepts of the state ideology of Byzantium was the concept of taxis, the essence of which was ... the convergence, the unification of the earthly and heavenly orders. The unifying force was the power of the emperor, the normal functioning of which largely relieved tension (the contradiction between what is and what is due, between the earthly and heavenly order) ... Thus, in Orthodoxy, the power of the “present”, the Orthodox tsar became the guarantor of the possibility of future “salvation” after death. .. If in a European city, in a Protestant environment, beliefs pushed a person to active economic activity (its success helped him to be convinced of his “chosenness”, in the coming individual “salvation”), then in a Russian city, not an economic, but a political path was opened up for a person “ salvation ”, and with a strong collective component.
From here, on the one hand, the economic activity of Europeans and the creation of a civil society by them as a mechanism to assert their interests, as an instrument of struggle for economic success, and on the other hand, the search for a "real" tsar in Russia ... The gradual secularization of ... views led to the fact that in the West, especially in the USA, the highest criterion for assessing human activity, if you like, the embodiment of the meaning of life, became market assessments, wealth, while in our country the convergence of existence and what should be realized in the form of a collective movement towards a better future, in the ideas of social justice ... The force that connects the existing and the necessary ... in the USSR, the charismatic power, the state, remained as before. "
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