In art, there is a process of regulation, complete submission and control by the royal power. The Academy of Painting and Sculpture, created back in 1648, is now under the official jurisdiction of the first minister of the king. In 1671 the Academy of Architecture was founded. Control is established over all forms of artistic life. The leading style of all art is officially classicism.
In classicism of the second half of the 17th century. there is no sincerity and depth of Lorraine canvases, high moral ideal Poussin. This is an official direction, adapted to the requirements of the court and, above all, of the king himself, the art is regulated, unified, painted according to a set of rules, what and how to depict, which is what Lebrun's special treatise is devoted to.
Architecture.
Large structures are being built in the country to glorify the king.
Louis Leveaux Palace of Vaux-le-Vicomte. Versailles.
Jules Adruen Mansart. Supervised the expansion of the palace at Versailles. Vendome square. Cathedral of the Invalides
. 
Claude Perrault... Louvre.
Francois Blondel... Triumphal Arch
Ticket 17
Art of Byzantium (5-7 c) Byzantine art is a historical-regional type of art, included in the historical type of medieval art.
658 BC The city of the Greek colonists of Byzantium was founded on an island between the Golden Horn Bay and the Sea of Marmara. The leader Byzantium is the city of Byzantium. Thanks to its good geographical position, Byzantium began to occupy one of the most prominent and main places among the Greek city-states.
Periodization
early Christian period(the so-called pre-Byzantine culture, I-III centuries); Church of San Appolinare
early Byzantine period, the "golden age" of Emperor Justinian I (527-565), the architecture of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (architects Anfimy from Traal and Isidore from Miletus, the pinnacle of the development of arched-vaulted structures 527) and Ravenna mosaics (VI-VII centuries), sculptures ( good donkey) + illustrations of books (including church ones); Church of San Vitale 526-547, octagon plan, encaustic icon painting (Christ Pantokrator).
Early Byzantine period construction of various monastic ensembles and temples. The most characteristic are such types of temples as longitudinally basilica and cross-domed.
Basilica- a type of rectangular structure, which consists of an odd number (1, 3 or 5) of different heights of naves.
In the multi-nave basilica, the naves are separated by longitudinal rows of columns or pillars, with independent roofs. Central nave - usually wider and higher in height, illuminated by second-tier windows
iconoclastic period(VIII-early IX century). Emperor Leo III the Isaurian (717-741), founder of the Isaurian dynasty, issued an Edict prohibiting icons. This period was called "dark time" - in many respects by analogy with a similar stage in the development of Western Europe; (church of St. Irene 4c, istanbul) the first mosaics destroyed
period of the Macedonian Renaissance(867-1056) It is considered to be the classical period of Byzantine art. The 11th century was the highest point of prosperity. Information about the world was drawn from the Bible and from the works of ancient authors. The harmony of art was achieved through strict regulation; Restoration of icons.
period of conservatism under the emperors of the Comnenian dynasty (1081-1185), Hellenistic traditions (1261-1453). The canonicity of icon painting.
The term Byzantine art means not only the art of the eastern part of the Roman Empire, but also a specific style, since this style grew out of certain tendencies, the emergence of which can be attributed to the reign of Constantine and even earlier times.
Cross-domed temple- the architectural type of a Christian temple, formed in Byzantium and in the countries of the Christian East in the V-VIII centuries. Became dominant in the architecture of Byzantium from the 9th century and was adopted by Christian countries of the Orthodox confession as the main form of the temple. In the classic version, it is a rectangular volume, the center of which is divided by 4 pillars into 9 cells. Crosswise cylindrical vaults serve as an overlap, and a drum with a dome rises above the central cell, on supporting arches. 
Mosaic of Justinian with his suite. 
18) QUESTION 1
Italian art developed within the framework of local schools. In architecture, the Tuscan, Lombard, and Venetian schools developed, in the style of which new trends were often combined with local traditions. In the visual arts, primarily in painting, several schools have also formed - Florentine, Umbrian, North Italian, Venetian - with their own unique stylistic features. Brunelleschi, Donatello, Masaccio - three Florentine geniuses - opened a new era in architecture and the visual arts. Having created the original design of the dome of the Florentine Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, the Orphanage for Foundlings (Ospedale degli Innocenti), the Church of San Lorenzo
Philippe Brunelleschi (1377-1446) gave a powerful impetus to the innovative development of Italian architecture. The octahedral dome, 42 m in diameter, soared majestically over the Gothic cathedral, becoming a symbol of the city's power and the strength of the human mind. In the buildings of Brunelleschi in Florence - the Pazzi Chapel,
In contrast to the building's aspiration upward, characteristic of the Gothic, Brunelleschi first created the lower floor of the facade in the form of a light portico, unfolding horizontally across its entire width and adjacent to the square. Innovation marks the projects of Leon Battista Alberti: in the Rucellai palazzo
in Florence, he first applied the division of the three tiers of the facade with pilasters of different orders,
The Venetian architecture of the Renaissance was distinguished by its originality. It took shape later than in Tuscany, in the last decades of the 15th century. Local Gothic traditions were combined in it with Renaissance features. The Venetians appreciated the elegance and colorfulness of buildings. The palaces of the patrician nobility standing on piles were decorated with loggias, fine stone carvings, multicolored inlays, bricks were faced with imported marble. The features of the new architecture were manifested not only in secular buildings, but also in church architecture, most clearly in the Church of San Zaccaria.
The outstanding Florentine sculptor Donatello (c. 1386-1466) became the real reformer of the art of sculpting. He was the first to create a free-standing statue, not related to architecture, was the author of the first equestrian monument - the monument to the condottiere Gattamelata in Padua,
embodied in stone and bronze the beauty of the naked human body (relief of the singing pulpit of the Florence Cathedral, the statue of David). Spiritualized images of his "Annunciation" relief
The formation and development of Renaissance painting was a complex process. Even in the first third of the XIV century. the great artist Giotto in his frescoes in the Chapel del Arena in Padua
he places figures taking on volume in a three-dimensional, albeit shallow, space.
The birth of a new, actually Renaissance painting is associated, however, with the name of another outstanding Florentine - Masaccio (1401-1428 / 29). His murals in the Brancacci Chapel in the Church of Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence
have become a school for many generations of artists. In the frescoes by Masaccio, depicting the expulsion from paradise of Adam and Eve and scenes from the life of the Apostle Peter, by Beato Angelico. In his work, influenced by Masaccio, along with the Renaissance features, the traditions of medieval art were still preserved. Creating his fresco "Procession of the Magi" in Palazzo Medici
Subtle, spiritualized images of Madonnas were created by Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510). In his work, they approach with their tender and fragile beauty with the images of the ancient goddess of love Venus. In the painting "Spring"
the artist depicts Venus against the background of a fairy-tale garden, together with the goddess of fertility Flora, strewn with flowers, three dancing graces and other characters ancient mythology... In "The Birth of Venus"
In the last decades of the 15th century. along with the Florentine school of painting, schools and trends with their own special style were formed in Central (Umbria) and Northern (Lombardy, Venice) Italy. The beginning of the Umbrian painting school was laid by the work of one of the greatest masters of Central Italy, Piero della Francesca (c. 1420-1492). He was the author of a treatise on perspective, an outstanding monumentalist who created the frescoes "The Arrival of the Queen of Sheba to King Solomon"
,
and others in the Church of San Francesco in Arezzo, and the greatest colorist, who knew how to convey the beauty of color harmonies in a light-airy environment. His images are heroized, they are imbued with majesty, epic calmness. The artist's humanistic ideas about man found expression in portraits of the Duke of Urbino Federigo da Montefeltro and his wife Battista Sforza, written around 1465. The Umbrian school also included Pietro Perugino, famous for the soft poetry of his works, including the lyrical type of Madonnas, Pinturicchio, who created soulful landscape images, images of interiors and multi-figured compositions in the murals of the library of Siena's cathedral, Luca Signorelli, whose severe graphic creativity was characteristic beginning, the skill of transferring the naked human body.
1. The main trends in art of the 20th century.
Modernism artistic tendencies, in the second half of the 19th century in the form of new forms of creativity, where the free view of the master prevailed, free to change the visible world at his discretion, following a personal impression, an inner idea or a mystical dream.
In Russian aesthetics, "modern" means the artistic style of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, which historically preceded modernism, so it is necessary to distinguish between these two concepts in order to avoid confusion.
Abstractionism- an artistic direction that formed in the art of the first half of the 20th century, completely abandoning the reproduction of forms of real the visible world... V. Kandinsky, P. Mondrian and K. Malevich are considered to be the founders of abstract art. In abstractionism, two clear directions can be distinguished: geometric abstraction, based mainly on clearly outlined configurations (Malevich, Mondrian), and lyrical abstraction, in which the composition is organized from freely flowing forms (Kandinsky). Abstract expressionism- the school of those who draw quickly and on large canvases, strokes of brushes dripping with paints onto the canvas.
Pete Mondrian
"Windmill in the Sunshine" 1908 Gray Wood 191 Evolution 1911
Alexey Mikhailovich (1645-1676)
Alexei Mikhailovich went through a turbulent era of "riots" and wars, rapprochement and discord with Patriarch Nikon. Under him, the possessions of Russia expanded in the east, in Siberia, and in the west. Active diplomatic activity is being carried out.
Much has been done in the field of domestic policy as well. The course was carried out to centralize management, to strengthen the autocracy. The backwardness of the country dictated the invitation of foreign specialists in manufacturing, military affairs, the first experiments, attempts at transformations (the establishment of schools, regiments of the new system, etc.).
In the middle of the 17th century. tax oppression has grown. The treasury felt the need for money both for the maintenance of the growing apparatus of power, and in connection with an active foreign policy (wars with Sweden, the Commonwealth). According to the figurative expression of V.O. Klyuchevsky, "the host has seized up the treasury." The government of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich increased indirect taxes, raising the price of salt by 4 times in 1646. However, the increase in the tax on salt did not lead to replenishment of the treasury, as the population's ability to pay was undermined. The salt tax was abolished in 1647. It was decided to collect the arrears for three last years... The entire amount of the tax fell on the population of the "black" settlements, which aroused the discontent of the townspeople. In 1648 it turned into an open uprising in Moscow.
At the beginning of June 1648, Alexei Mikhailovich, returning from a pilgrimage, received a petition from the Moscow population with demands to punish the most selfish representatives of the tsarist administration. However, the demands of the townspeople were not satisfied, and they began to smash merchant and boyar houses. Several major dignitaries were killed. The tsar was forced to expel the boyar B. I. Morozov, who headed the government, from Moscow. With the help of bribed archers, who increased their salaries, the uprising was suppressed.
The uprising in Moscow, dubbed the "salt riot", was not the only one. For twenty years (from 1630 to 1650), uprisings took place in 30 Russian cities: Veliky Ustyug, Novgorod, Voronezh, Kursk, Vladimir, Pskov, Siberian cities.
Cathedral Code of 1649"For the sake of fear and civil strife from all black people," as Patriarch Nikon later wrote, the Zemsky Sobor was convened. Its sessions were held in 1648-1649. and ended with the adoption of the "Cathedral Code" of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. It was the largest Zemsky Cathedral in the history of Russia. It was attended by 340 people, most of whom (70%) belonged to the nobility and the top of the posad.
"Cathedral Code" consisted of 25 chapters and contained about a thousand articles. Printed in a circulation of two thousand copies, it was the first Russian legislative monument published by typographic method, and remained in effect until 1832 (naturally, with changes). It was translated into almost all European languages.
The first three chapters of the "Code" spoke about crimes against the church and the royal power. Any criticism of the church and blasphemy was punishable by burning at the stake. Persons accused of treason and insulting the honor of the sovereign, as well as boyars, governors, were executed. Those who "would come in droves and conspiracy, and learn whom to rob or beat," were ordered to "be executed without mercy by death." A person who bared a weapon in the presence of the king was punished by cutting off his hand.
"Cathedral Code" regulated the performance of various services, the ransom of prisoners, customs policy, the position of various categories of the population in the state .. It provided for the exchange of estates, including the exchange of estates for estates. Such a deal had to be registered in the Local Order. The "cathedral code" limited the growth of church landownership, which reflected the tendency of the subordination of the church to the state.
The most important section of the "Cathedral Code" was Chapter XI "The Court of the Peasants": an unlimited search for fugitive and taken away peasants was introduced, peasant transfers from one owner to another were prohibited. This meant the legal registration of the serfdom system. Simultaneously with the private peasants, serfdom extended to the black-moss and palace peasants, who were forbidden to leave their communities. In the event of flight, they were also subject to indefinite search.
Chapter XIX of the "Cathedral Code" "On the townspeople" made changes in the life of the city. Were liquidated "white" settlements, their population was included in the settlement. The entire urban population had to bear the tax on the sovereign. Under fear death penalty it was forbidden to move from one settlement to another and even to marry women from another settlement, i.e. the population of the posad was assigned to a certain city. The townspeople received a monopoly on trade in the cities. The peasants did not have the right to keep shops in the cities, but could trade only from carts and in the trading rows.
By the middle of the 17th century. Having restored its economy, Russia could focus on solving foreign policy problems. In the northwest, the primary concern was the return of the outlet to the Baltic Sea. In the west, the task was to recover the Smolensk, Chernigov and Novgorod-Seversky lands lost during the Polish-Lithuanian intervention. The solution to this problem has become aggravated in connection with the struggle of the Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples for reunification with Russia. In the south, Russia constantly had to repel the incessant raids of the Crimean Khan - a vassal of the powerful Turkey.
The Zaporozhye Sich became the center of the struggle against foreign oppressors in the 40-50s of the 17th century. To protect themselves from the raids of the Crimean Tatars, here, beyond the Dnieper rapids, the Cossacks built a special system of fortifications from felled trees - "notches" (hence the name of this territory). Here, in the lower reaches of the Dnieper, a peculiar Cossack republic, a free military brotherhood led by elected koshev and kuren atamans.
Rzeczpospolita, wishing to attract the Cossacks to its side, began to draw up special lists - registers. The Cossack, recorded in the register, was called the registered one, was considered in the service of the Polish king and received a salary. In accordance with the established order, the hetman stood at the head of the Zaporozhye army. In 1648 hetman Zaporizhzhya Sich Bohdan Khmelnitsky was elected, who received the traditional signs of power: a mace, a bunchuk and a military seal.
He showed himself early as a talented leader. The Cossacks elected him to the post of a military clerk (one of the most important in the Zaporozhye Sich).
Like many other residents of Ukraine, Bohdan Khmelnytsky experienced the cruelty and injustice of foreign oppressors. So, the Polish nobleman Chaplinsky attacked B. Khmelnitsky's farm, plundered the house, burned down the apiary and the threshing floor, pinpointed his ten-year-old son to death, and took his wife away. In 1647 B. Khmelnitsky openly opposed the Polish government.
B. Khmelnitsky understood that the struggle against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth would require a tremendous effort, and therefore, from the first steps of his activity, he advocated an alliance with Russia, seeing in her a loyal ally of Ukraine. However, at that time, urban uprisings were raging in Russia, and, in addition, she was still not strong enough to enter into confrontation with the Commonwealth. Therefore, at first, Russia limited itself to providing Ukraine with economic assistance and diplomatic support.
Having announced the general mobilization of the gentry, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth moved its troops against the army of B. Khmelnitsky. In the summer of 1649 near Zborov (Carpathian region) B. Khmelnitsky defeated the Polish army. The Polish government was forced to conclude the Zborow Peace Treaty. Under this agreement, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth recognized B. Khmelnitsky as hetman of Ukraine.
The Zboriv peace was in fact a temporary truce. In the summer of 1651, the superior forces of the Polish magnates met with the troops of B. Khmelnitsky. The defeat at Berestechko and the defeat of individual uprisings by punitive expeditions forced B. Khmelnitsky to conclude peace under the White Church on difficult conditions.
On October 1, 1653, war was declared on Poland. An embassy headed by boyar Buturlin left for Ukraine. On January 8, 1654, in the city of Pereyaslavl (now Pereyaslav-Khmelnitsky), a Rada (Council) took place. Ukraine was admitted to the Russian state. Russia recognized the electiveness of the hetman, the local court and other authorities that emerged during the war of liberation. The tsarist government confirmed the estate rights of the Ukrainian nobility. Ukraine received the right to establish diplomatic relations with all countries except Poland and Turkey, and have registered troops of up to 60 thousand people. Taxes were supposed to go to the royal treasury. The reunification of Ukraine with Russia had a huge historical meaning... It freed the people of Ukraine from national and religious oppression, saved them from the danger of enslavement by Poland and Turkey. It contributed to the formation of the Ukrainian nation. The reunification of Ukraine with Russia led to a temporary weakening of serf relations on the Left Bank ( serfdom legally introduced in Ukraine in the second half of the 18th century).
The reunification of the Left-Bank Ukraine with Russia was an important factor in strengthening the Russian statehood. Thanks to the reunification with Ukraine, Russia was able to return the Smolensk and Chernigov lands, which made it possible to start the struggle for the Baltic coast. In addition, a favorable prospect opened up for expanding Russia's ties with other Slavic peoples and Western states.
The Commonwealth did not recognize the reunification of Ukraine with Russia. The Russian-Polish war became inevitable. The war was marked by the success of the Russian and Ukrainian troops. Russian troops occupied Smolensk, Belarus, Lithuania; Bohdan Khmelnytsky - Lublin, a number of cities in Galicia and Volyn.
Sweden opened hostilities against it. The Swedes took Warsaw and Krakow. Poland was on the brink of destruction.
Alexei Mikhailovich, counting on the royal throne, declared the warrior of Sweden (1656-1658). A Russian-Polish truce was concluded.
Russia's successes were canceled out by the betrayal of the Ukrainian hetman I. Vyhovsky, who replaced B. Khmelnitsky, who died in 1657. I. Vyhovsky went for a secret alliance with Poland against Russia.
In 1658, a Russian-Swedish truce was concluded for three years, and in 1661 - the Peace of Kardis (near Tartu). Russia returned the territories it had conquered during the war. The Baltic remained with Sweden. The problem of access to the Baltic Sea remained the primary, most important task of foreign policy.
The exhausting, protracted Russian-Polish war ended in 1667 with the conclusion of the Andrusovsky (near Smolensk) armistice for thirteen and a half years. Russia abandoned Belarus, but retained Smolensk and the Left-Bank Ukraine. Kiev, located on the right bank of the Dnieper, was transferred to Russia for two years (after the end of this period, it was never returned). Zaporozhye came under the joint control of Ukraine and Poland.
It is impossible to overestimate the significance of the events taking place in Russia in the second half of the 17th century. On the one hand, the state is getting stronger. The autocracy is strengthening in the country. The craft is developing rapidly, and the number of manufactories is growing. The emergence of capitalist relations begins (although all the conditions necessary for the development of capitalism have not yet been created). On the other hand, the situation of the bulk of the population - the peasants - is constantly deteriorating. Riots break out in the country one after another, which is becoming increasingly difficult to pacify. In foreign policy, Russia is waging a fierce struggle for access to the Baltic Sea and seeks to protect its borders in the south.
- - The revolt of the inhabitants and laity of the Solovetsky monastery was an action not only against Nikon's reform, but also against the arbitrariness of the authorities. The most influential center of Orthodoxy in Russia opposed political and church reforms.
- - The discontent of the rebellious people was associated with the arbitrariness of the local authorities, bribery, high taxes. Rebellions flared up in many cities throughout the country. The peasants staged pogroms of the houses of boyars and officials right up to the Kremlin itself.
- - The Russian people are a very dangerous and terrible force, especially in anger. Dissatisfaction with the tsarist power in the 17th century led to the uprising of Stepan Razin. It was a very powerful movement, assertive and formidable, which in our history has received the name "peasant war".
- - The Duma, as the highest legislative and judicial institution, consisted of the most influential and wealthy feudal lords of Russia. Initially, it included members of the princely families and relatives of the king. But gradually there were people who took high positions thanks to personal merit. Over time, the bureaucratization of the Duma took place, as well as the limitation of its political influence.
- - The Russian government, outraged by the violations of the Bakhchisarai armistice, was forced to conduct two military campaigns against the Turkish troops. By participating in the anti-Turkish coalition, Russia fulfilled its allied obligations, although the campaigns were generally not crowned with success.
- - The article covers the events of the Russian-Turkish years 1676-1681. The problematic covers the issues of the chronological framework of the confrontation, its causes, as well as the results and consequences for the destinies of not only Russia and the Ottoman Empire, but also for Ukraine and Poland.
- - The military conflict between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden has grown into large-scale contradictions with Russia. The unleashed war with Sweden was not always successful for Russia, but the conclusion of the Andrusov armistice also had positive sides... As a result of hostilities, Russia lost access to the Baltic Sea.
- - The organized Zemsky Sobor unanimously spoke in favor of continuing the siege of the Azov fortress, but the problematic economic and social state of the Moscow state forced the government to surrender Azov to Turkish troops. The troops were sent to eliminate the Polish oppression on the territory of Western Ukraine.
- - The Don Cossacks, having settled along the estuaries of the main southern rivers, gained more and more military force, which made it possible to achieve success in the siege of the Azov fortress. But the further maintenance of the conquests and the advance of the troops could only be provided by government reinforcements.
- - The siege of Simbirsk, unsuccessful for the troops of Stepan Razin, ended with the flight of the rebels. The leader of the uprising was caught and sentenced to death. Torture and quartering were carried out in public, but this could not completely extinguish the fervor of the rioters. The final defeat was carried out a little later.
- - The uprising of Stepan Razin acquired an increasingly depressing scope. Many peasant villages, attracted by the "lovely letters", joined the rebellious troops. The movement has grown to the present peasant war requiring immediate action from the government armies.
- - Every person has heard about Stepan Razin, even those who are quite far from history. Much that is said about this character has already been overgrown with folk legends and fictional facts. However, such a person really existed, and his life was interesting.
- - Although the Russian revolt is spontaneous, it will grow for a long time, gradually, expressing itself in popular discontent. The Cossack tsar rejected the proposal to take the army of Vasily Us into the service and thereby sowed the seed of doubt among the people. It happened 4 years before the riot of Stepan Razin.
- - Description of the historical situation of the previous copper riot... The reasons and goals of popular discontent. Description of the course of the uprising. Victims associated with its suppression. The final consequences of the riot.
- - The need to repay the debt of Sweden and the difficult economic situation in the country, force the government to take unpopular measures, the consequence of which is the Bread Riot in Pskov and Novgorod in 1650.
- - Historical consequences and significance of the abolition of parochialism for the development of the Moscow state after 1682. New appointment procedure for public office.
- - The growth of monetary receipts to the state treasury contributed to the early introduction of innovations in the organization of the regular army. Thanks to the use of the most advanced training methods at that time and the import of more efficient firearms the fighting efficiency of the army was significantly increased.
- - The arbitrariness of the local authorities was especially acutely felt by the poor. After the census of households in 1678, a tax reform came into force, which implied an increase in the number of payers. As a consequence, tax evasion has become pervasive.
- - Orders were created to manage key sectors of state and territorial administration. The chiefs of most of the orders were boyars or nobles. Bureaucracy became more and more important in the system of state power. This made management more efficient, but made it difficult to resolve current minor issues.
- - Zemsky sobors acted in the most difficult years of the struggle against external enemies and internal problems. These were estate-representative institutions, meetings of representatives of all estates (except for serfs). But with the strengthening of absolutism, the Zemsky Councils were abolished.
- - During the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, we managed to finally overcome the consequences of the Time of Troubles. Contemporaries called him "the quietest". This adjective does not refer to the character of the king, but to his ability to maintain order in government.
- - The prerequisite for the formation of the all-Russian market was the regional division of labor. Moscow, which became the most important transport hub, was of exceptional importance in this process. The development of trade gradually led to the formation of a new class - the merchant class.
- - In the 17th century, the production of flax, cereals, salt and many other important products was especially developed in Russia. The specialization of each area was determined by climatic conditions and the presence of passing trade routes. The largest shopping centers were Astrakhan, Arkhangelsk, Vologda.
- - In Russia, the 17th century is characterized by the emergence of the first manufactories, which belonged mainly to the metallurgical industry. But their number did not grow as rapidly as the number of small handicraft industries oriented to the market. Peasant crafts became very popular and occupied a significant share in the trade.
- - With the development of trade and commodity-money relations, serfdom between peasants and landowners became more and more stricter. The organization of agriculture did not experience significant innovations and improvements, which affected the volume and quality of products.
- - Exists a large number of opinions about the reasons for the origin of serfdom in Russia. Basic premises are exposed by comparison Russian history and the history of Western states. The further development of serfdom is due to the peculiarities geographic location Russia and the specifics of Russian identity.
Russia's foreign policy in the 50s - 60s XVII century differs from previous years in much greater tension, dynamism and the presence of significant concrete results, primarily in the "Polish" (western) direction.
Russia's foreign policy in the 50s - 60s XVII century differs from previous years in much greater tension, dynamism and the presence of significant concrete results, primarily in the "Polish" (western) direction.
In 1647, a third force intervened in the confrontation between Russia and the Rzecz Pospolita: an uprising broke out in Ukraine, which was under the rule of the Rzecz Pospolita. It was headed by the centurion of the Zaporozhye army, Bohdan Khmelnitsky, more than 50 years old, whose farm was ruined by the Poles and his 10-year-old son was killed.
The reason for the uprising was a complex interweaving of social, religious and national oppression, which was experienced by various layers of the Orthodox population of Ukraine from the side of Polish magnates, gentry and catholic church... Part of the Ukrainian and Belarusian nobility adopted Catholicism or Uniatism in order to preserve their privileges, and in the lower reaches of the Dnieper (beyond the rapids) a free “Cossack republic” arose - the Zaporozhye Sich. Zaporozhye Cossacks carried out border service, guarding the Rzeczpospolita from the raids of the Crimean Tatars. Trying to tame them, Warsaw was the strongest and richest of the Cossacks back in the 70s. XVI century entered in the register (list), which meant enrollment in the service of the Polish king. "Non-Registered", of which there were many Cossacks-Zaporozhians, were considered fugitives and were subject to return to their former owners. As a result, the "register" became a source of constant conflict between the Cossacks and the Polish government.
V late XVI- the first half of the 17th century. peasant-Cossack uprisings and uprisings more than once swept across Ukraine, the participants of which opposed the master's oppression, for the preservation of the native language and customs of their ancestors, for Orthodox faith... These performances found a sympathetic response among urban artisans and merchants, small and medium landowners and clergy.
The movement under the leadership of Khmelnitsky had a similar nature, but it was stronger and wider than the previous ones, quickly turning into a real war of liberation thanks, on the one hand, to the severity of the contradictions, and on the other, to the activity and abilities of Khmelnitsky himself. In January 1648, at the head of a detachment of 300 Cossacks, he unexpectedly attacked the Zaporozhye Sich and defeated the Polish garrison stationed there. Registered Cossacks supported the rebels and elected Khmelnytsky the hetman of the Zaporozhye Army.
In the spring of the same year, the Cossack army of Khmelnitsky, who at that moment was supported by the Crimean Khan Islam-Girey, who wanted to annoy Poland, left Zaporozhye to the north. The beginning was successful: victories over Polish troops at Zheltye Vody and Korsun (April 1 and May 17, 1648), the occupation of Bila Tserkva and Kiev, then the victory at Pilyavets (September 1648), the liberation of Podolia and Volhynia. At this time, news came about the beginning of the anti-Polish uprising in Belarus. At the beginning of 1649, Khmelnitsky introduced a new administration in Ukraine - regiments (territorial units) headed by colonels vested with all military and civilian power.
The day after the victory of the rebels at Zborov (August 6 - 7, 1649), where the Poles were saved from complete defeat only by an unexpected ultimatum to Khmelnitsky from the Crimean Khan, who demanded an end to the battle, the parties signed a peace treaty. In accordance with it, the register increased fivefold (from 8 to 40 thousand), and three voivodeships - Kiev, Chernigov and Bratslav - came under the authority of Khmelnytsky. However, it was clear that neither side was happy with this compromise.
The lower classes were also dissatisfied. When the Polish lords began to return to Ukraine and deal with the rebels, the peasants of Podolia and Volhynia rose up against them; it was restless in Belarus and in the Smolensk region.
In June 1651, the main forces of the rebels in the battle at Berestechko (not far from Lvov) were defeated by the Poles because of the treason of the Crimean Tatars. In accordance with the new - Belotserkovsky - treaty, the register was reduced by half (to 20 thousand), and only one remained under Khmelnitsky's rule - the Kiev province, and he was deprived of the right to communicate with foreign states, including the Crimean Khanate, and had to obey the authority of the Polish crown hetman.
At the end of May 1652, in a two-day battle on the Batogskoye field (on the right bank of the Southern Bug), Khmelnitsky's army utterly defeated the 50-thousandth Polish army. As a result, the entire Right Bank was in the power of the rebels. Their separate detachments began to operate already on Polish territory.
Nevertheless, Khmelnytsky understood the impossibility of a long war with Poland, relying only on his own forces. Back in 1648, he turned to Moscow with a request for help and a proposal for Ukraine to join Russia. The Kremlin decided to help the hetman with armaments (and later allowed him to buy bread and salt free of duty), but refused to accept Ukraine into its citizenship at that moment. The government of the recently enthroned 19-year-old Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676) faced a series of powerful urban uprisings within the country (“ Salt riot"In Moscow and others), considered that Russia was not yet ready for a new war with Poland, which would inevitably begin immediately after the announcement of Ukraine's annexation.
The turning point in Moscow's position occurred in 1653. Feeling much more confident on the throne, Aleksey Mikhailovich, and with him the Boyar Duma, responded to Khmelnitsky's next request with consent to accept Ukraine as citizenship. For greater weight, it was approved as a decision of all Russian lands and "various ranks of people" at the Zemsky Sobor on October 1, 1653, which, in addition, decided to start a war with Poland. At the same time, in early October, Khmelnitsky, having defeated the Poles near Zhvanets (south of Kamenets-Podolsk), was able to restore the terms of the Zboriv Treaty.
A Russian embassy headed by boyar Buturlin was sent to Ukraine. On January 8 - 9, 1654, in Pereyaslav, with a large gathering of people at the Rada of the Zaporozhye Cossack Host, Bohdan Khmelnitsky announced the annexation of Ukraine to Russia. All the Rada members swore allegiance to Russia: "They will be in the lands and in the cities under the sovereign's high hand forever relentless."
Soon in Moscow, the "Articles of Bogdan Khmelnitsky" were signed, which fixed the rights and privileges of the Zaporizhzhya Army, the Cossack foreman, the Ukrainian gentry, large cities - much broader than those that they enjoyed under the rule of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Ukraine was to be ruled by the hetman, the regimental military-administrative bodies remained in the localities, and the register was determined at 60 thousand people. But from now on, the Moscow Tsar was considered the supreme power in Ukraine.
Naturally, Poland went to war against Russia. The beginning of the Russian-Polish war (1654-1667) was successful for Russia. During 1654 - 1655 Russian troops took Smolensk, crossed the Dnieper, captured 33 cities of Eastern Belarus, including Polotsk, Vitebsk, Mogilev, as well as Vilno - the capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Khmelnitsky's Cossacks fought on the territory of Ukraine, the detachment of Ataman Zolotarenko - in Belarus.
The bilateral Russian-Polish conflict, however, was almost immediately complicated by the intervention of a third party - Sweden, whose troops (supported by part of the Polish magnates and gentry) invaded Poland from the north in 1655 and soon captured most its territory, including Warsaw.
In this situation, surrounded by Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, two groups developed: supporters of the continuation of the war with Poland, confident of its early victorious end, and supporters of the outbreak of war with Sweden, insisting on the earliest use of the favorable opportunity to break through to the Baltic Sea or, at least, to prevent further the strengthening of Sweden in the Baltic States (the latter was requested by the urgently arrived in Moscow embassy from Vienna).
On October 24, an armistice was concluded with the Commonwealth. At this time, Russian troops were already fighting against the Swedes in the Baltic States: having captured Dinaburg, Dorpat, Kokenhausen, Marienburg, they approached Riga. But the siege of Riga was unsuccessful. Neither troops nor money were enough to continue the general offensive. Poland, which first entered into negotiations with Russia on a joint struggle against the Swedes, soon resumed the war with it with the support of Crimea.
Russia could not fight on two fronts at the same time, and on December 20, 1658, in Valiesar, she signed an armistice with Sweden for 3 years. In 1660 Sweden made peace with the Commonwealth. In turn, on June 21, 1661, Russia was forced to sign the Kardis peace with the Swedes in the town of Kardis (Estonia), returning to them all the Baltic territories captured during the war, and confirming the conditions of the Stolbovsk peace of 1617.
Having resumed the war with Poland in January 1658, Moscow had to closely monitor the changing situation in the Ukraine, which was itself partly the reason. The fact is that, having become subjects of the Russian tsar, the population of Ukraine freed itself from religious oppression, but very soon felt the heavy hand of the Moscow governors. The mood of the Cossacks began to change: some of them called to seek help from Poland, and some from Turkey.
This difference of opinion is understandable: Ukraine was surrounded on all sides by stronger neighbors, and the question of its greater or lesser independence, in the end, rested on the question with which of these neighbors it was necessary to strengthen relations in the first place, whom to rely on. The successors of B. Khmelnitsky, who died in 1657 (hetmans I.V. Vygovsky, Yu.B. Khmelnitsky, PD Doroshenko and I.M.Bryukhovetsky) in the late 50s and 60s. they were unable to make the final choice and were guided in their policy either by Moscow, or more often by Warsaw, and sometimes by Istanbul and Bakhchisarai. Since the beginning of the 60s. in the Right and Left Bank Ukraine, “their” hetmans were often elected, who did not recognize each other. The "unsteadiness" of the Ukrainian elite aroused suspicion in response in the Kremlin. Russian garrisons appeared in Kiev, Chernigov and other cities.
The renewed war between Russia and the Commonwealth became protracted. Fighting alternated with truces, successes with failures. Both opponents were exhausted both literally and figuratively: the population of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth decreased by one third, Russia experienced an acute financial deficit, which prompted the government in 1662 to embark on an adventure with the issue of copper money, which led to a grandiose revolt in Moscow.
The Russian-Polish war ended on January 30, 1667 with the signing of the Andrusovsk armistice for 13.5 years, according to which Kiev (for 2 years), Smolensk and Chernigov lands were withdrawn to Russia, and the annexation of the Left-Bank Ukraine to it was recognized. Right-bank Ukraine remained in the Commonwealth. Zaporozhye was supposed to be under the rule of both states, which pledged to jointly repulse the attacks of the Crimean Tatars and Turks. The negotiations on behalf of Russia were successfully conducted by the head of the Ambassadorial Prikaz Afanasy Lavrentievich Ordin-Nashchokin (1605-1680), one of the best Russian diplomats that time.
Thus, the foreign policy of Russia in the 50s - 60s. was marked by major real successes, the most significant of which was the beginning of the annexation of the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands. This, in turn, geopolitically brought Russia closer and connected with Central and Western Europe, creating the preconditions for increasing its role in European international relations... The results of the war were also important for Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich personally, who over the years more and more actively advocated the unification of all the East Slavic lands around Moscow. It turned out, however, that Russia was not yet in a position to wage wars with several opponents at once, which led to several of its failures.
In the 70s - 90s. Russia's foreign policy began to change its priorities: the main thing for it was the "Turkish-Crimean" (southern) direction, which was associated both with the change in the geopolitical situation in and around Ukraine, and with important changes in international relations in Southeast Europe.
In the 70s. The Ottoman Empire began to interfere in Ukrainian affairs more actively than before, apparently considering that all of its potential opponents in the region - Russia, the Commonwealth and the Ukrainians themselves - were greatly weakened by the continuous twenty-year struggle with each other. Skillfully using the disputes and strife in the Ukrainian elite, in particular the anti-Moscow position of Hetman P.D. Doroshenko, the Turks occupied the Right-Bank Ukraine. According to the Buchach Treaty of 1672, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth ceded Podolia and other lands to the Sultan.
Dissatisfied with such a development of events, the Right Bank Cossacks put pressure on Hetman Doroshenko, and in 1676 he went over to the side of Russia. The next year, a huge Turkish-Tatar army invaded Ukraine, against which the Russian regiments headed by G.G. Romodanovsky. Doroshenko surrendered to the Russians and handed over the hetmanship to I.S. Samoilovich, a supporter of the reunification of both parts of Ukraine under Russian rule. So in 1677 an open war began between Russia and Turkey, the first in the history of their relations in two centuries. Its beginning coincided with the death of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and the accession of his 15-year-old son Fyodor Alekseevich (1676 - 1682), who received a good education at that time, but due to his age and due to illness of the legs, he was not able to independently govern the country.
The Turks sought to seize Kiev and Chigirin, a Russian fortress in the Ukraine, to which they sent in the summer of 1678 an army of 200,000. She was opposed by the 120-thousandth Russian-Ukrainian army. Having shown miracles of fortitude in the defense of the city, the Russians, after fierce street fighting, were forced to leave Chigirin. However, the Turks no longer had the strength to continue active hostilities, and they retreated to the Bug.
On January 13, 1681, Russia signed the Treaty of Bakhchisarai with the Crimean Khan Murad-Girey, which was also ratified Turkish Sultan... The parties agreed to a 20-year truce. The left-bank Ukraine and Kiev were recognized as the possessions of Russia, and the lands on the right bank of the Dnieper (Bratslavshchina and others) remained under the rule of the Sultan.
During the war, the third in a row, Izyum, a notch line with a length of 400 miles was created, covering Sloboda Ukraine from the raids of the Crimean Tatars.
Demonstrated by Turkey in the 70s. predatory intentions in relation to Ukraine contributed to the rapprochement of Russia and the Commonwealth, since their southern borders were threatened by the same enemy, and this threat was much more serious than before.
A little later, it became clear that a new balance of power was taking shape throughout Southeastern Europe: in 1682 the Turks invaded the Habsburg lands, and the next year the huge army of Kara-Mustafa laid siege to Vienna. Poland came to the aid of the Holy Roman Empire: her army helped to lift the Turkish siege. After this victory, Rzeczpospolita regained the Right-Bank Ukraine. In 1684, the anti-Turkish "Holy League" was formed within the Empire, Poland and Venice. The treaty of the three countries directly spoke of the involvement of all Christian sovereigns in it, "mainly the tsars of Moscow."
All this was closely watched from Moscow by Princess Sophia Alekseevna (1682 - 1689), who ruled on behalf of her young brothers Tsars Ivan V and Peter I Alekseevich, and her inner circle. It was very important for the ambitious Sophia, who persistently strove for one-man supreme power, to demonstrate her ability to achieve success in foreign policy. Therefore, in response to an invitation to join the "Holy League", the Kremlin declared the need to first completely settle relations with the Commonwealth. The stumbling block in the negotiations that began was Kiev, which (contrary to the points of the armistice of 1667) Russia did not return to the Poles. The latter, however, were under pressure from Vienna, and the military actions of the Poles against the Turks were unsuccessful.
In 1686, after negotiations, at which the Russian delegation was headed by the near boyar, Prince Vasily Vasilyevich Golitsyn, "the royal great seals and great emissary affairs of the sovereign", the "Eternal Peace" was signed with the Commonwealth. Left-bank Ukraine, Zaporizhzhya Sich and Kiev were assigned to Russia, although it paid 150,000 rubles to Poland for the latter. Moscow was supposed to break off relations with Ottoman Empire and the Crimean Khanate and join the "Holy League", thus becoming a member of one of the European coalitions.
In 1687, Russia, fulfilling its obligations, began a war with the Crimean Khanate, sending against it an army of 50,000, led by Prince Golitsyn and the same number of Ukrainian Cossacks of Hetman I.S. Samoilovich. Down the Dnieper to the Kizi-Kermen fortress, a detachment of G. Kasogov sailed on ships. The Don Cossacks of Ataman F. Minaev also took part in the campaign.
The foreign policy situation for Moscow was developing successfully: the Turks could not provide assistance to the Crimea, as they fought with other members of the "League". However, a summer offensive on the dry - moreover, scorched by the Tatars - steppe turned out to be impossible. Russians and Ukrainians lacked water, food, fodder. There were no battles, but losses grew: neither people nor horses could withstand. As a result, Golitsyn gave the order to turn back; a European educated man, a supporter of rapprochement between Russia and the West, known throughout Moscow for his large library, gallant manners and closeness to Princess Sophia, turned out to be an unimportant military leader. Officially, the Kremlin accused the hetman of Ukraine I.S. Samoilovich; he was exiled to Tobolsk and replaced by I.S. Mazepa (being the general chieftain at that time, it was Mazepa who reported Samoilovich's "treason").
In 1689, the Kremlin decided to repeat the campaign, which was led by the same Golitsyn, who had done a lot of preliminary preparation: among other things, the Novoboroditsk fortress was built on the Samara River, which blocked the way for the Crimean Tatars to Ukraine from the south. Meanwhile, the Ottoman Empire continued the war in the Balkans, but fortune finally changed it: Turkish troops were defeated in Hungary and Dalmatia, and surrendered Belgrade to the Austrian army. All this ended with a military coup in Istanbul and the overthrow of Sultan Mohammed IV.
As in the first time, Golitsyn led his troops (112 thousand Russians and Ukrainians) south, to Perekop, across the steppe. In mid-May, fierce battles began, advancing with twice the superior forces of the Crimean Tatars. Suffering defeat, the Tatars retreated, but soon the heat began again. Khan offered Golitsyn an agreement that would confirm the Peace of Bakhchisarai in 1681, but he refused. The heat inflicted more and more damage on Golitsyn's troops every day, and he was again forced to retreat.
Despite the failure, Golitsyn's Crimean campaigns played a role in the common struggle of the countries of South-Eastern Europe against the Ottoman Empire in the 80s, as they fettered the military forces of the Crimean Tatars and prevented them from helping the Sultan's armies. In addition, the very fact of these campaigns meant that Russia intends to move from passive defense with the help of notch lines and repelling the next raids of the Tatars from the south by putting forward military "barriers" to active offensive actions against the Crimean Khanate. Finally, Russia has demonstrated its increased military potential and loyalty to the commitments made to its Holy League allies. The echoes of events in the Black Sea region reached even Istanbul, where panic arose more than once - "The Russians are coming!" - and the "faithful" began to rush down from the minarets.
The Crimean campaigns also influenced the internal political struggle in Russia. The military failures of the "chancellor" Golitsyn, which Sofya Alekseevna tried in vain to hide from the population, contributed to the fall of her authority as a ruler and hastened her overthrow by Peter I in the fall of 1689.
Peter I, who had been considered tsar since 1682, remained in the shadow of his elder half-sister for seven years. Now, having sent her to the Novodevichy Convent, he willy-nilly had to seriously think about the main directions of his policy (his half-brother and co-ruler, the feeble-minded Ivan V, as before, did not interfere in any state affairs; he died in 1696. .).
After a five-year pause filled with military and other "fun" (1689-1694), Peter I continued what the governments of Tsar Fyodor and Tsarevna Sophia had begun: the war for access to the Azov and Black Seas. Keeping the general outline of the strategy, the young tsar, however, changed his tactics: he decided to fight not with the Crimean Khanate, but with Turkey. And lead the army not to the Tatar Perekop - directly, along the open, dry, windy and unbearably hot steppe in the summer, but to the Turkish Azov at the mouth of the Don (the same "stronghold of Islam" that the Don Cossacks had already taken in 1637) - along the river and along the river, which is much easier and more convenient. The return of Russia to an active foreign policy in the northern Black Sea region quite suited its European allies: the Holy Roman Empire and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which, as before, with a cynical calculation assigned the Russians the role of a peripheral, distracting force in the common struggle with the Ottoman Empire.
At the beginning of 1695, two Russian troops moved south from Moscow at once. One of them, under the command of the boyar Boris Petrovich Sheremetev, going down the Dnieper, captured four Turkish fortresses (two were destroyed, two were left with garrisons). The second was divided: one part of the warriors led by Fyodor Aleksandrovich Golovin and the Swiss Franz Lefort moved to Azov along the Don River; the other, under the command of the Scotsman Patrick Gordon, walked along the coast. Peter took part in the campaign as a scorer.
The siege of Azov, in which a total of 30 thousand people participated, lasted three months (July - September), but ended, according to Peter himself, with his "non-capture". Affected and feuds between the three commanders, and the inability to conduct a siege, and, most importantly, the lack of a fleet, because of which a complete siege did not work out: the Turks, without hindrance, brought everything they needed to the besieged by water.
In the winter of 1695/96. energetic and not reckoning with any costs and sacrifices, Peter made extraordinary efforts, trying to turn the tide in his favor. All ground forces were transferred into the hands of one commander - "Generalissimo" Alexei Semenovich Shein. At the head of the fleet, which was hastily built at the shipyards in and around Voronezh, was put in the "Admiral" Lefort.
By the spring of 1696, near Voronezh, Tsar Peter already had 23 galleys, 2 ships, 4 fire ships and 1,300 plows; about 40 thousand soldiers and archers were drawn there. In early May, the troops on ships went down the Don to the Azov, where help was already awaiting them - detachments of the Don and Zaporozhye Cossacks.
This time the siege of Azov lasted less than a month. Around the city, an earthen rampart was erected above the fortress walls. At sea, Russian ships blocked all approaches to the fortress. The heavily destroyed Azov with 136 cannons surrendered on July 19, and although the fortress actually had to be rebuilt, Russia acquired an important stronghold in the Azov Sea.
After the capture of Azov, the government developed a plan for the development of the acquired lands. Another fortress was laid near Azov - Taganrog, where Peter I, according to legend, even thought about founding a new capital.
Wishing to consolidate the success, activate the anti-Turkish coalition and study the international situation, Peter I in March 1697 sent to Europe a "great embassy", which was officially headed by F.Ya. Lefort, F.A. Golovin and P.A. Voznitsyn (the tsar went under the name of Peter Mikhailov). In addition to diplomatic activities, the embassy was supposed to facilitate the purchase of weapons and the invitation to the Russian service of various specialists. During the absence of the tsar, the administration of the country was entrusted to the boyars - his maternal uncle L.K. Naryshkin, as well as B.A. Golitsyn and P.I. Prozorovsky.
As part of the embassy, Peter I visited Polish Courland, Brandenburg and other German states, Holland, England, then returned to Holland and from there went to Vienna to meet with the "Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire" Leopold I. All negotiations showed what to save (a, all the more, expand) the anti-Turkish "Holy League" is unlikely to succeed: Holland, having completed one war with France, was preparing for the next, and the Empire had already begun separate negotiations for peace with the Turks.
Peter I did not have time to find out the position of the third participant in the "Holy League", Venice, because in the summer of 1698 he received news from Moscow about a new rebellion of the archers and decided to immediately return to Russia. On the way, the king caught up with good news: the rebellion was suppressed, the instigators were captured, an investigation was underway. Without changing his route, Peter I nevertheless allowed himself to stay for a long time in the small town of Rava Russka (south of Warsaw), where he held secret negotiations with the Polish king and Saxon elector August II. It was about an alliance against Sweden: not yet entrenched in the Sea of Azov, Peter I turned his gaze to the Baltic.
The deep secret of the negotiations (the monarchs talked face to face, without witnesses, demonstrating to others only mutual sympathy and a general craving for entertainment), their very subject and participants foreshadowed a new act of struggle in the Baltic.
The fact is that August II, known to Europe only for his exceptional physical strength and love affairs, ascended the Polish throne only a year ago (in 1697) and with the direct support of Peter I. Then the Russian tsar sent the Polish Diet, who, after the death of Jan III Sobessky chose, as usual, a new king from several applicants (in particular, the French prince de Conti), a letter. Peter expressed himself simply and clearly: “Having constant friendship for your sovereigns, the Polish kings, also for you, sir, and the Commonwealth, we do not want such a king from the French and from the Turks side, but we wish you to be on the throne of the kingdom Polish and Grand Duchy of Lithuania by the king ... whatever the people are, but not from the opposite (Russia. - Auth.) Side. " For greater persuasiveness, the tsar sent a 60,000th corps to the Polish border. The Diet, naturally, voted for August.
Analysis of the current European "politician" showed Tsar Peter that the major powers are no longer showing the same interest in the war with the Ottoman Empire, for they are preparing for a more important struggle for them: for the "inheritance" of the childless Spanish king Charles II of Habsburg. At the same time, this, as it was already clear, inevitable and prolonged war (Charles II died in 1700, and it really began in 1701) would inevitably distract the attention of all its participants from the others. European problems, including the Black Sea-Balkan and Baltic. In other words, Russia for some time received freedom of independent foreign policy maneuver. Moreover, the solution of the first of these problems seemed to Peter at that moment unpromising, since Russia could not successfully fight alone with Turkey and the Crimea.
The Baltic is a different matter. Here, good preconditions were created for the unification of foreign policy, diplomatic and military efforts of several powers that sought to oppose the growing hegemony of Sweden. And again, in case big war"For the Spanish inheritance" France, England and Holland, which had allied treaties with Sweden, are unlikely to be able to effectively help her.
Throughout the XVII century. Sweden, step by step, turned into the largest Baltic empire, one of the great European powers. Possessing Finland, the Swedes after the Troubles in Russia secured the coast of the Gulf of Finland, after another war with Poland they acquired Livonia (in 1629), and as a result of the Thirty Years' War (in 1648) - lands in northern Germany (Pomerania, Bremen and other). In the 40s - 50s. Sweden, through military pressure, obtained from Denmark the transfer of lands to it in the south and in the center of the Scandinavian Peninsula. In 1697, a young energetic king Charles XII, full of expansionist plans for the final transformation of the Baltic Sea into an internal "Swedish lake", ascended the Swedish throne.
The talks in Rava Russkaya ended with verbal promises of "friendship"; no documents were signed. However, already in 1699, Peter made a promise to the Polish embassy that arrived in Moscow to go to war with Sweden immediately after the conclusion of peace with Turkey. In the same year, Denmark, Sweden's longtime adversary in the Baltic region, joined the emerging anti-Swedish Northern Union. At the same time, not quite sure of the favorable development of events (Sweden was too strong and the allies were too unreliable), in the fall of 1699, at negotiations with the Swedes, Peter confirmed Russia's loyalty to the Kardis peace.
In the same 1699, at a congress in Karlovitsy, Russia, Austria and Venice concluded a two-year truce with Turkey. But Peter I was impatiently awaiting the results of the bilateral Russian-Turkish negotiations, which were conducted in Constantinople by the diplomat E.I. Ukrainians. On July 14, 1700 Ukraintsev signed an armistice for 30 years, which secured Azov for Russia. And only then, having ensured, as he believed, peace on the southern borders, Peter I on August 19 declared war on Sweden.
Thus, the end of the 90s. became a turning point in Russian foreign policy. In the new international situation, Peter I set a goal, with the assistance of the member states of the "Northern Alliance" he created, to defeat Sweden and achieve direct access for Russia to the Baltic Sea. Concentrating all forces and means on the "Swedish" (north-western) direction, he burned with the determination to open the door of Europe and introduce Russia there as a great European power.
Mikhail Fedorovich Roman ascended the throne of youths of incomplete 17 years old. The nobles, the close representatives at the throne saw in M.F. kindness and simplicity. At the age of 24, Mikhail married Princess Dolgoruka. But the young queen soon fell ill and died three years later. A year later, the monarch entered into a new marriage with Strezhneva. From her he had a son, Alexei, the future tsar, and three daughters... Mikhail Vasilyevich died in 1645 at the age of 49. Having received the throne by right, Alexei Mikhailovich professed faith in the Tsar's chosenness, his power. Alexei M. went through a stormy era of riots and wars, rapprochement and discord with Patriarch Nikon. Under him: 1) the possession of Russia is expanding in the east, in the west and in Siberia. 2) Active diplomatic activity is carried out. 3) A course was carried out to centralize management, to strengthen the autocracy. Zemsky sobors helped Mikhail Fedorovich and his successor to solve the most difficult state affairs. But the role of Zemsky Sobors has changed. They became the organ of representation of the nobles and townspeople. They have become an organ of administrative power. Zemsky councils were called under Mikhail often, almost annually. In the first half of the century, Zemsky Sobors considered issues of war and peace, collection of emergency taxes and relations with neighboring countries. But under Aleksei, Zemsky Sobors began to gather less frequently. The last Z. Sobor was convened in 1653. Throughout the 17th century. under the tsar, the Boyar Duma acted, important changes also took place in it: The number of people who were not noble increased, they received places in the Duma for merits. By the end of the 17th century, 94 hours were included in the Duma. it has become a cumbersome institution. And A.M began to ignore her.
The tsar began to solve current affairs with the help of a room duma. In the 17th century. the power of orders reached its peak. This system lacked uniform principles of creation and a clear distribution of functions. There were about 80 orders in total, and the strengthening of the role of officials is evidence of the birth of absolutism. The seventeenth century is a turning point, including in the development of the economy. New bourgeois relations are emerging in the economy: 1) A new phenomenon is the formation of the all-Russian market, that is, strong economic ties are developing between countries. 2) Development of craft, strengthening of specifications. Craftsmen began to work for the market. The geographical division of labor is increasing, and the specification of individual regions is increasing. 3) The first manufactories appear. Manufacturing is the first capitalist enterprise that accepts the labor of free people, with a division of labor, still manual. But Russian manufactories had a number of peculiarities: they were state-owned, they used forced labor, that is, peasants worked there. The number of manufactories in Russia did not exceed 30, the main industry in which they arose was metallurgy. A part of Christian households is also being drawn into the market relationship. Domestic Christian crafts began to develop: canvases, shoes, dishes, etc. The increasing exchange of agricultural and commercial products, the development of commodity-money relations lead to the gradual formation of the internal market. In the 14th and 16th centuries, local markets were relatively isolated. In the 16th century, they became closely linked, either directly or through other markets. Trade in the 16th century was mainly of a fair nature. Foreign trade also grew. From Russia they exported furs, timber, resin, tar, leather, bacon, bread, etc. She traded with England, Holland, Sweden, Poland, and so on. Trade relations were regulated by special documents. In 1653, the Trade Charter was created, which established a single trade duty at the rate of 5% of the price of the goods sold. Foreigners paid 8%, and according to the Novgorod charter of 1667 - 10%.
16. Peter's reforms: reasons, essence, results, consequences.
Peter 1 is one of the most prominent figures in Russian history. The attitude towards ref Peter is ambiguous. Roofing felts is a historic feat, roofing felts measures that doomed the country to ruin after the reforms. He was an outstanding commander and statesman, he implemented ideas energetically, not considering the sometimes personal interests of his subjects. he created a fleet and regulated the army, reformed the apparatus of power, shaved his beards and created scientific centers. B directed military operations. His figure interested many writers, he was endowed with the traits of a charismatic leader.
Loading ...